Using the Concorde TSP solver

In TSP: Infrastructure for the Traveling Salesperson Problem

library(TSP)

## Concorde is not part of the package. Chunks that need it are only evaluated
## if the executables can be found.
concorde_path_found <- tryCatch(concorde_path(), error = function(e) NULL)
has_concorde <- !is.null(concorde_path_found) &&
  file.exists(file.path(concorde_path_found, "concorde"))
has_linkern <- !is.null(concorde_path_found) &&
  file.exists(file.path(concorde_path_found, "linkern"))

knitr::opts_chunk$set(
  collapse = TRUE,
  comment = "#>",
  fig.width = 6,
  fig.height = 5
)

This vignette shows how to use the Concorde TSP solver [@Applegate2006] in the R package TSP [@Hahsler+Hornik2007]. The Concorde TSP solver is one of the most advanced and fastest exact solvers for the symmetric traveling salesperson problem. It uses the branch-and-cut method [@Padberg1990] and has been used to solve instances with tens of thousands of cities. The Concorde distribution also contains linkern, an implementation of the Chained Lin-Kernighan heuristic [@Applegate2003] that finds very good tours for large instances in a short time.

TSP provides interfaces to both programs via solve_TSP() with method = "concorde" and method = "linkern". The programs are not included in the package and have to be installed separately. This vignette shows how to install and use them.

if (!has_concorde)
  cat("> **Note:** Concorde was not found when this vignette was built. The ",
      "code that needs Concorde is shown, but its output is not.\n")

Installing Concorde

Concorde is free for academic research use, but is distributed under a license that does not allow commercial use. Because of this license and since it needs to be compiled for each platform, it is not bundled with TSP.

1. Download Concorde from the Concorde download page. You can either download precompiled executables for your operating system (if available) or the source code and compile it. Compiling Concorde additionally requires an LP solver (e.g., QSopt, which is also available from the download page, or CPLEX) and may need some adaptation on recent compilers.
2. Make sure the executables concorde and linkern (the latter is built by default in the Concorde LINKERN directory) are executable.
3. Tell TSP where to find them. Either put the directory with the executables into the PATH environment variable (before starting R, or using Sys.setenv()), or set the path in R:

library(TSP)

## directory containing the executables
concorde_path("~/concorde/")

concorde_path() without an argument returns the path that is currently used and gives an error if no executables can be found. This can be used to check the installation:

concorde_path()

To make the path permanent, add the call to concorde_path() (or the PATH setting) to your .Rprofile.

Solving a TSP with Concorde

Concorde works with any TSP, and with ETSP objects. We use the USCA50 data set with distances between 50 cities and compare the exact result to the heuristics.

data("USCA50")

tour <- solve_TSP(USCA50, method = "concorde", verbose = FALSE)
tour

The tour is a permutation of the cities. These are the first cities in the order they are visited:

head(labels(tour))

Since the cities have GPS coordinates in the data set USCA312_GPS, we can draw the tour on a map. The map is only drawn if the suggested package maps is installed.

data("USCA312_GPS")
coords <- USCA312_GPS[match(labels(USCA50), USCA312_GPS$name), c("long", "lat")]

plot(coords, cex = .5, col = "red", xlab = "longitude", ylab = "latitude",
     main = paste("Optimal tour, length:", tour_length(tour)))
if (requireNamespace("maps", quietly = TRUE))
  maps::map("world", col = "gray", add = TRUE)

## close the cycle by returning to the first city
order <- c(as.integer(tour), as.integer(tour)[1])
lines(coords[order, ])

The TOUR is an ordinary object, so we can compare it with a heuristic tour, here the default heuristic (arbitrary insertion followed by 2-opt).

set.seed(1234)
tour_heuristic <- solve_TSP(USCA50)
c(heuristic = tour_length(tour_heuristic), concorde = tour_length(tour))

For USCA50, the optimal tour length is 14497. Since Concorde finds the optimal tour, no heuristic can be shorter.

Chained Lin-Kernighan

"linkern" is used the same way. It does not guarantee an optimal solution, but is much faster for large problems. The number of kicks (random restarts of the local search) can be set with the command line option -R. More kicks lead to better tours but take longer.

tour_lk <- solve_TSP(USCA50, method = "linkern", control = list(clo = "-R 1000", verbose = FALSE))
tour_lk

Euclidean problems

For Euclidean problems, Concorde can work with the coordinates directly, which does not require creating a distance matrix. This makes large instances possible. We show here a small problem.

set.seed(1000)
x <- data.frame(x = runif(100), y = runif(100))
etsp <- ETSP(x)

tour_etsp <- solve_TSP(etsp, method = "concorde", verbose = FALSE)
tour_etsp
plot(etsp, tour_etsp)

Control parameters

Besides the general arguments, the following parameters can be passed on to Concorde and linkern using control or directly as arguments to solve_TSP():

• clo: a string with additional command line options. concorde_help() and linkern_help() print all available options. The options -x, -o, -N and -Q are used by the interface and cannot be set.
• precision: the number of decimal places that are kept when distances are converted to integers (default: 6).
• verbose: if FALSE, the output of the program is suppressed.
• keep_files: keep the temporary directory with the input and result files (for debugging).
• seed: This parameter is typically not necessary and a reproducible result can be obtained using R's since a seed is created using set.seed() function. If an exact seed needs to be used for the executable, then specify the seed as a
  whole number between 0 and .Machine$integer.max (2147483647). Do not use -s in clo to set the seed.
• rep and opt are not available for these methods.

## use fast cuts only (-V); this may not give the optimal tour
solve_TSP(USCA50, method = "concorde", clo = "-V", verbose = FALSE)

Integer distances and precision

Concorde and linkern can only work with integer distances. The interface therefore multiplies the distances by $10^{precision}$, rounds them and writes them to a file in TSPLIB format (see ?write_TSPLIB). A warning is shown if the distances are so large that rounding errors worse than precision cannot be avoided. Negative distances (for example, resulting from the reformulation of an ATSP) are shifted so the smallest distance is zero, which does not change the optimal tour. If you need to reduce the rounding error, scale your distances or increase precision.

Infinite distances are replaced by a large finite value (see ?solve_TSP).

Asymmetric problems

Concorde cannot solve asymmetric TSPs directly. solve_TSP() reformulates an ATSP as a symmetric TSP with twice the number of cities (reformulate_ATSP_as_TSP()), solves it, and removes the dummy cities from the resulting tour. This is done automatically with a warning that can be suppressed by as_TSP = TRUE.

set.seed(1234)
cost <- matrix(runif(100, 1, 10), nrow = 10)
diag(cost) <- 0
atsp <- ATSP(cost)

tour_atsp <- solve_TSP(atsp, method = "concorde", as_TSP = TRUE, verbose = FALSE)
tour_atsp

Shortest Hamiltonian paths

Concorde can also be used to solve related problems by transforming them into a TSP. For example, to find the shortest path (not cycle) through all cities, insert a dummy city which has a distance of zero to all other cities and cut the tour at the dummy city.

tsp <- insert_dummy(USCA50, label = "cut")
tour <- solve_TSP(tsp, method = "concorde", verbose = FALSE)
path <- cut_tour(tour, "cut")
head(labels(path))

The length of the path is the length of the tour since the dummy city does not add any distance:

tour_length(tour)

Interrupting and troubleshooting

• If Concorde takes too long, interrupt solve_TSP() with Esc or Ctrl-C. On most systems, this also stops the Concorde process. If it keeps running, terminate the process concorde using your operating system.
• The error "Can not find executables for concorde or linkern" means that TSP cannot find the programs. Check the path with concorde_path().
• If the executables are found but do not run (e.g., "exited with status"), run concorde_help() and check that the programs are compiled for your platform, are executable, and (on Linux/macOS) are not blocked by the system's security settings.
• Use verbose = TRUE (default) and keep_files = TRUE to see Concorde's output and inspect the files that were passed to it.
• Running very large exact problems can take days (the 24,978 city tour through Sweden needed almost 100 CPU years). For large instances, use "linkern".

See also ?Concorde and ?solve_TSP.

References

TSP documentation built on Nov. 14, 2026, 1:09 a.m.