Coordinate Transformations in gggenes
In gggenes: Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

knitr::opts_chunk$set(
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This vignette is intended as a reference for gggenes development. It explains the internal coordinate transformation pipeline and the rationale behind its design. If you are not planning to make changes to gggenes, you probably don't need to read this.

The Problem

gggenes geoms need to combine two types of measurements:

Data-derived coordinates (e.g. gene positions defined with xmin and xmax) that scale with the plot axes
Absolute measurements (e.g. arrowhead dimensions defined in millimetres) that remain constant regardless of plot size

This creates a challenge because ggplot2's standard approach of transforming data coordinates in draw_panel() doesn't work when absolute measurements are involved. At draw_panel() time, the viewport doesn't exist yet, so there's no way to convert "4 mm" to native coordinate units. Even if we could, resizing the plot would invalidate the calculation without re-running draw_panel().

The Solution: Deferred Rendering

gggenes solves this by deferring grob construction to render time using grid's makeContent() mechanism:

draw_panel() packages the raw data, coord, and panel_scales into a gTree with a custom class
makeContent() is called by grid at render time, when the viewport exists and unit conversions are valid
The actual geometry is constructed and converted to grid coordinates inside makeContent()

This ensures that absolute measurements are correctly converted regardless of plot size, and that resizing triggers a fresh conversion.

The Along/Away Abstraction

gggenes supports three coordinate systems: Cartesian, flipped (coord_flip()), and polar (coord_polar()). Rather than writing separate geometry logic for each, the package uses an abstraction called "along/away":

Along: The direction along the molecule backbone
Away: The direction perpendicular to the backbone

This maps to different axes depending on the coordinate system:

| Coordinate System | Along | Away | |-------------------|------------------|-------------------| | Cartesian | x (horizontal) | y (vertical) | | Flipped | y (vertical) | x (horizontal) | | Polar | theta (angle) | r (radius) |

With this abstraction, geometry can be defined once in along/away terms and then transformed appropriately for any coordinate system.

The following diagram illustrates the full transformation pipeline for each coordinate system:

                        TRANSFORMATION PIPELINE

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                              RAW DATA                                       │
│                    (xmin, xmax, y in data units)                            │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
                                    │
                                    ▼
                          coord$transform()
                                    │
          ┌─────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────┐
          │                         │                         │
          ▼                         ▼                         ▼
┌───────────────────┐   ┌───────────────────┐   ┌───────────────────┐
│     CARTESIAN     │   │      FLIPPED      │   │       POLAR       │
├───────────────────┤   ├───────────────────┤   ├───────────────────┤
│ along = x (NPC)   │   │ along = y (NPC)   │   │ along = θ (rad)   │
│ away  = y (NPC)   │   │ away  = x (NPC)   │   │ away  = r (0–0.5) │
└───────────────────┘   └───────────────────┘   └───────────────────┘
          │                         │                         │
          ▼                         ▼                         ▼
┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                      GEOMETRY FUNCTION                            │
│         (operates in along/away space, same for all coords)       │
└───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
          │                         │                         │
          │                         │                         ▼
          │                         │              ┌───────────────────┐
          │                         │              │ Polar segmentation│
          │                         │              │ (add vertices for │
          │                         │              │  smooth curves)   │
          │                         │              └───────────────────┘
          │                         │                         │
          ▼                         ▼                         ▼
┌───────────────────┐   ┌───────────────────┐   ┌───────────────────┐
│ FINAL CONVERSION  │   │ FINAL CONVERSION  │   │ FINAL CONVERSION  │
├───────────────────┤   ├───────────────────┤   ├───────────────────┤
│ x = along         │   │ x = away          │   │ x = 0.5 + r×sin(θ)│
│ y = away          │   │ y = along         │   │ y = 0.5 + r×cos(θ)│
└───────────────────┘   └───────────────────┘   └───────────────────┘
          │                         │                         │
          └─────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────┘
                                    │
                                    ▼
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                           GRID GROB                                         │
│                      (x, y in NPC units)                                    │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Important: Along/Away Are Not Always NPC

A key subtlety is that along/away values represent different things depending on the coordinate system:

Cartesian/Flipped: Along and away are NPC (normalised parent coordinates), scaled 0-1. The transformation from data to NPC happens via coord$transform() and is complete at this point.
Polar: Along is theta (radians, 0 to 2π) and away is r (radius, scaled 0–0.5). These are not NPC—they're polar coordinates that still need to be converted to Cartesian NPC for grid to draw.

This means the data-to-NPC transformation happens at different stages:

Cartesian: data → coord$transform() → NPC (stored as along/away) → grid
Polar:     data → coord$transform() → θ/r (stored as along/away) → trig conversion → NPC → grid

The compose_grob() Pipeline

To encapsulate this complexity, gggenes splits the work across two steps. The data-coordinate transform is viewport-independent and vectorised, so transform_to_along_away() runs it once per panel over the whole layer data, detecting the coordinate system and adding the along/away columns. Each glyph is then drawn by compose_grob(), which handles only the viewport-dependent, per-row work:

Converts unit measurements (mm, etc.) to along/away values
Calls a geometry function with the transformed values
Segments the geometry for polar coordinates (so curves appear smooth)
Converts along/away to grid NPC coordinates
Creates and returns the appropriate grob

compose_grob() receives the already-transformed data_row and the panel's coord_system (both produced by transform_to_along_away()), so the O(N) coordinate transform collapses to a single vectorised call per panel.

Geometry Functions

Geometry is defined as a regular R function that receives a data row with transformed coordinates, and returns the polygon or polyline vertices:

gene_arrow_geometry <- function(data_row, gt, as_along, as_away, flip_along, flip_away) {
  # Extract transformed coordinates from data_row
  along_min <- data_row$along_min
  along_max <- data_row$along_max
  away <- data_row$away

  # Convert units using the converter functions
  arrowhead_along <- as_along(gt$arrowhead_width)
  arrowhead_away <- as_away(gt$arrowhead_height)
  body_away <- as_away(gt$arrow_body_height)

  # Compute intermediate values
  orientation <- ifelse(along_max > along_min, 1, -1)
  arrowhead_along_clamped <- ifelse(
    arrowhead_along > abs(along_max - along_min),
    abs(along_max - along_min),
    arrowhead_along
  )
  flange <- along_max - orientation * arrowhead_along_clamped
  arrowhead_away_half <- arrowhead_away / 2
  body_away_half <- body_away / 2

  # Assemble the forward-glyph vertices
  alongs <- c(along_min, along_min, flange, flange, along_max, flange, flange)
  aways <- c(
    away + body_away_half,
    away - body_away_half,
    away - body_away_half,
    away - arrowhead_away_half,
    away,
    away + arrowhead_away_half,
    away + body_away_half
  )

  # Reflect for reverse-strand / upside-down glyphs (see "Reverse-strand
  # rendering" below)
  along_pivot <- (along_min + along_max) / 2
  if (flip_along) alongs <- 2 * along_pivot - alongs
  if (flip_away) aways <- 2 * away - aways

  list(alongs = alongs, aways = aways)
}

The function receives a standard interface:

data_row: A single-row data frame with transformed coordinates. Contains along (for point geoms) or along_min/along_max (for range geoms), plus away. For subgene geoms, also contains along_submin/along_submax.
gt: The gTree object containing geom-specific parameters as grid::unit() objects (e.g., gt$arrowhead_width).
as_along: Function to convert a grid::unit() to NPC along-units.
as_away: Function to convert a grid::unit() to NPC away-units.
flip_along, flip_away: Logical flags indicating whether to reflect the glyph along the backbone and/or perpendicular to it (polygon and polyline geometry functions only). See "Reverse-strand rendering".

All coordinate values in data_row are already transformed to along/away space. The geometry function converts unit measurements as needed using the converter functions.

Reverse-strand Rendering

Some glyphs need to be drawn "reversed". A gene on the reverse strand points the other way, and a terminator or promoter on the reverse strand is, per the SBOL Visual specification (§5.2), flipped both horizontally and vertically. Rather than each geom reinventing this at a different pipeline stage, reversal is expressed as two orthogonal reflections in along/away space:

along-flip: reflect the glyph about its along-pivot. This is a horizontal reversal in Cartesian coordinates and an angular reversal in polar coordinates.
away-flip: reflect the glyph about the backbone, its away-pivot. This is a vertical reversal in Cartesian coordinates and a radially-inward reflection in polar coordinates.

Because both reflections are defined in along/away space, upstream of the conversion to grid coordinates, each composes with all three coordinate systems automatically. The away-flip becoming a radially-inward reflection in polar coordinates, for example, requires no special handling—it falls out of the same reflection applied before the along/away values are converted to grid x/y.

The pivots follow a fixed convention:

along-pivot: the centre of the glyph along the backbone, (along_min + along_max) / 2 for range geoms, or the anchor along for point geoms.
away-pivot: the backbone itself, away.

compose_grob() forwards two logical flags, flip_along and flip_away, to the vertex (polygon and polyline) geometry function, which performs the reflection itself. Text geometry functions return a bounding box and are never flipped, so they do not receive these flags.

geometry <- function(data_row, gt, as_along, as_away, flip_along, flip_away) {
  # ... compute the forward-glyph alongs / aways ...

  along_pivot <- (data_row$along_min + data_row$along_max) / 2
  away_pivot <- data_row$away
  if (flip_along) alongs <- 2 * along_pivot - alongs
  if (flip_away) aways <- 2 * away_pivot - aways

  list(alongs = alongs, aways = aways)
}

Placing the reflection in the geometry function, rather than in compose_grob(), keeps the interface declarative: the geometry function is the single, complete description of how the glyph looks in every permutation of orientation and strand. Most glyphs reflect about the standard pivots, and a shared helper factors out those two lines. But a glyph whose reverse-strand form is a genuinely different shape—not a mirror image of the forward form—can branch on the flags and emit different vertices instead, without compose_grob() needing to know.

Negative heights

The *_height arguments to geom_feature() and geom_terminator() accept negative values, historically used to draw a glyph "upside down", below the backbone. This is the away-flip by another name. It is normalised in makeContent(): a negative height is converted to its magnitude and paired with flip_away = TRUE, so it flows through the same reflection as every other reversal rather than through a separate signed-unit code path.

Strand semantics live above the flip

The flip_along and flip_away flags are purely mechanical; the mapping from meaning to flags is resolved in each geom's makeContent(), and differs between geoms. In particular, the forward aesthetic is not consistent across the package. In geom_gene_arrow() and geom_subgene_arrow(), forward is a relative flip of the direction implied by xmin/xmax—so forward = FALSE combined with xmin > xmax can actually describe a forward-strand gene. In geom_feature(), by contrast, forward = TRUE is an absolute statement that the feature is on the forward strand. The mechanical flip layer is agnostic to this: it receives resolved booleans and does not know how they were derived. The semantic model that reconciles these cases—strand as a first-class concept, reverse-strand variants, and the meaning of forward in each geom—is discussed in issue #64.

Unit Conversion

Converting absolute measurements to along/away values requires knowing:

The coordinate system (determines which grid dimension to convert)
For polar "along", the current radius (angular size scales inversely with radius)

compose_grob() creates the as_along and as_away converter functions that close over these values:

# Inside compose_grob():
as_along <- if (coord_system == "cartesian") {

  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertWidth(unit, "npc"))
} else if (coord_system == "polar") {
  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertWidth(unit, "npc")) / r
} else if (coord_system == "flip") {
  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertHeight(unit, "npc"))
}

as_away <- if (coord_system == "cartesian") {
  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertHeight(unit, "npc"))
} else if (coord_system == "polar") {
  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertHeight(unit, "npc"))
} else if (coord_system == "flip") {
  function(unit) as.numeric(grid::convertWidth(unit, "npc"))
}

Polar Segmentation

ggplot2 draws polar-coordinate plots by defining them in Cartesian coordinates that are passed to grid. Grid doesn't know it's drawing a polar-coordinate plot. Hence, a straight line in a polar-coordinate plot cannot be defined as a line between two points, as this would be drawn as a straight chord rather than an arc. To make lines follow the polar geometry, they must be broken into many small segments before conversion to Cartesian coordinates. In ggplot2, this is known as 'munching'. This segmentation is handled automatically by compose_grob().

The segmentation algorithm works as follows:

For each pair of consecutive vertices (with wrap-around for polygons), calculate a "length" in polar space: sqrt((Δr)² + (Δθ)²)
Create round(length * 100) segments between the vertices—approximately 100 segments per unit of combined polar distance
Linearly interpolate both r and θ to create the intermediate points
For polylines, the algorithm respects id groupings to keep separate line segments separate

Note that transform_to_along_away() includes handling for the special case where theta wraps around at 0/2π. When a range geom's endpoint transforms to exactly 0 radians but should logically be 2π (based on the original data ordering), the value is corrected. However, geometries that truly span across the 0/2π boundary (e.g., from 350° to 10°) are not currently supported and would need to be split into two separate geometries.

Final Conversion

After geometry is computed in along/away space, it's converted to grid x/y:

if (coord_system == "cartesian") {
  x <- alongs
  y <- aways
} else if (coord_system == "polar") {
  x <- 0.5 + aways * sin(alongs)
  y <- 0.5 + aways * cos(alongs)
} else if (coord_system == "flip") {
  x <- aways
  y <- alongs
}

For polar, this is the standard polar-to-Cartesian conversion, centered at (0.5, 0.5) in the viewport.

Putting It Together

With this architecture:

draw_panel() is minimal; it just packages data, coord, and panel_scales into a gTree
makeContent() transforms the whole panel's data once with transform_to_along_away(), defines units and the geometry() function, then iterates over the transformed data rows calling compose_grob() for each
compose_grob() encapsulates the per-glyph drawing pipeline, which is independent of the geometry of any individual geom

This makes it straightforward to add new geoms: define a geometry function and unit specifications, then call compose_grob() with the appropriate grob type. Currently, compose_grob() supports three grob types:

"polygon": Creates a closed polygon using grid::polygonGrob()
"polyline": Creates open line(s) using grid::polylineGrob(), with optional id vector for multiple segments and arrow parameter for arrowheads
"text": Creates a text label using ggfittext. The geometry function returns a bounding box (along_min, along_max, away_min, away_max) instead of vertices. Text styling (fontface, colour, etc.) comes from data_row columns rather than the gp parameter

Example: Complete makeContent Implementation

makeContent.genearrowtree <- function(x) {
  # Transform data to along/away coordinates once for the whole panel
  transformed <- transform_to_along_away(x$data, x$coord, x$panel_scales)
  data <- transformed$data
  coord_system <- transformed$coord_system

  # Define geometry function with standard interface
  geometry <- function(data_row, gt, as_along, as_away, flip_along, flip_away) {
    # Extract transformed coordinates
    along_min <- data_row$along_min
    along_max <- data_row$along_max
    away <- data_row$away

    # Convert units
    arrowhead_along <- as_along(gt$arrowhead_width)
    arrowhead_away <- as_away(gt$arrowhead_height)
    body_away <- as_away(gt$arrow_body_height)

    # Compute geometry
    orientation <- ifelse(along_max > along_min, 1, -1)
    arrowhead_along_clamped <- ifelse(
      arrowhead_along > abs(along_max - along_min),
      abs(along_max - along_min),
      arrowhead_along
    )
    flange <- along_max - orientation * arrowhead_along_clamped
    arrowhead_away_half <- arrowhead_away / 2
    body_away_half <- body_away / 2

    # Assemble the forward-glyph vertices
    alongs <- c(along_min, along_min, flange, flange, along_max, flange, flange)
    aways <- c(
      away + body_away_half,
      away - body_away_half,
      away - body_away_half,
      away - arrowhead_away_half,
      away,
      away + arrowhead_away_half,
      away + body_away_half
    )

    # Reflect for reverse-strand / upside-down glyphs
    along_pivot <- (along_min + along_max) / 2
    if (flip_along) alongs <- 2 * along_pivot - alongs
    if (flip_away) aways <- 2 * away - aways

    list(alongs = alongs, aways = aways)
  }

  # Prepare grob for each gene
  grobs <- lapply(seq_len(nrow(data)), function(i) {
    gene <- data[i, ]

    # Set up graphical parameters
    gp <- grid::gpar(
      fill = ggplot2::alpha(gene$fill, gene$alpha),
      col = ggplot2::alpha(gene$colour, gene$alpha),
      lty = gene$linetype,
      lwd = gene$linewidth * ggplot2::.pt
    )

    compose_grob(
      geometry_fn = geometry,
      gt = x,
      data_row = gene,
      coord_system = coord_system,
      grob_type = "polygon",
      gp = gp,
      flip_along = !as.logical(gene$forward)
    )
  })

  class(grobs) <- "gList"
  grid::setChildren(x, grobs)
}

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gggenes documentation built on July 5, 2026, 9:06 a.m.

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gggenes
Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

Coordinate Transformations in gggenes
In gggenes: Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

The Problem

The Solution: Deferred Rendering

The Along/Away Abstraction

Important: Along/Away Are Not Always NPC

The compose_grob() Pipeline

Geometry Functions

Reverse-strand Rendering

Negative heights

Strand semantics live above the flip

Unit Conversion

Polar Segmentation

Final Conversion

Putting It Together

Example: Complete makeContent Implementation

Try the gggenes package in your browser

R Package Documentation

Browse R Packages

We want your feedback!

gggenes Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

Coordinate Transformations in gggenes In gggenes: Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

The Problem

The Solution: Deferred Rendering

The Along/Away Abstraction

Important: Along/Away Are Not Always NPC

The compose_grob() Pipeline

Geometry Functions

Reverse-strand Rendering

Negative heights

Strand semantics live above the flip

Unit Conversion

Polar Segmentation

Final Conversion

Putting It Together

Example: Complete makeContent Implementation

Try the gggenes package in your browser

R Package Documentation

Browse R Packages

We want your feedback!

gggenes
Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'

Coordinate Transformations in gggenes
In gggenes: Draw Gene Arrow Maps in 'ggplot2'