In SeungkiKwak/Kwak_S_PhD_thesis: Sungki Kwak's PhD Thesis

set_parent("thesis.Rmd")

\chapter{The Results}

\section{Introduction}

This chapter is describes the results of the organic geochemical analyses and luminescence dating from four different habitation sites in the central part of the Korean Peninsula. The overall archaeological phenomena of the four sites will be described in detail. Then, the sampling strategies, methods and the results of the organic geochemical analyses and luminescence dating for the each of the sites will be elucidated one by one.

\section{Kimpo-Yangchon}

The Kimpo-Yangchon site is located on the low hillocks surrounded by Guree-Ri, Yoohyeon-Ri, and Yangchon-Ri of Kimpo city, Gyeonggi province. The site is about 4 kilometers southwest of the Han River (Figure \ref{site_locations}; \ref{site_locations_zoomin}). The research period was from October 30th, 2007 to February 25th, 2011. The site includes various archaeological phenomena such as house pits, mound burials, pit graves, stone-lined pit burials, and firing features which represent different time periods from the Chulmun period to the historical Joseon Dynasty (AD 1392 - 1897) [@Kim2013a]. The total area of the site is 863,992 square meters. Its main archaeological phenomena belong to the Mumun period, and the analysis was focused on this time period.

Six house pits and two pit features were classified into the Chulmun period. The house pits are either round shaped or square shaped with rounded corners, and hold the interior features such as hearth, post holes and ditch. Most of the potteries are pointed-bottomed deep bowls with various combinations of patterns including (short) slanted incising, herringbone, and lattice. The excavated house structures are assumed to belong to the late Middle - Late Chulmun period.

As for the Mumun period, 126 house pits, pit features, and firing features were excavated. The house pits are classified into three types based on their shape: square, rectangular, and longhouse. Each of those houses normally has an array of multiple post holes which crosses the center of the pit; and some of them contain pit-hearths, storage pits, and ditches as interior features. Most of the potteries have the rim-punctuation or a combination of lip-scoring/rim-punctuation; and others a combination of double-rim/short slanted line incision (Figure \ref{Mpatterns}). As for the ground stone tools, arrowheads, daggers, and axes were found. As for the farming tools, semi-lunar shaped stone knives (Figure \ref{KY-artifacts}; cf. Figure \ref{farming}b) and mortar/pestle were found. The excavated features can be reclassified into two different lineages: (large) square/rectangular house pits with double-rim/short slanted line incision potteries and (small) rectangular house pits/(elongated) long houses with rim-punctuation potteries (Figure \ref{Mpatterns}). These two lineages are considered to be an extension of the two Early Mumun pottery cultures (Garak-Dong style and Yeoksam-Dong style) which covers a large extent of Gyeonggi province (Figure \ref{site_locations}). These Mumun features of the site have a great value in understanding the overall aspect of the Mumun period in the central west part of the Korean Peninsula. Considering the number of houses, artifacts (Figure \ref{KY-artifacts}), and the radiocarbon dating on the charcoal from hearths in the house pits [@Kim2013a, Table \ref{tab:radiocarbon_KM}], the period when the Kimpo-Yangchon site was occupied the most intensively is around 3,000 - 2,700 BP, the incipient/early stage of the Mumun period (cf. Figure \ref{km_radio}; \ref{Radiocarbon_dates}).

\begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Location/house pit No. & Cultural historical period & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) & Calendar date \ \midrule \endhead Area 2-1 B/No.1 & Mumun & 2650±150 & BC 815 \ Area 2-1 B-1/No.1 & Mumun & 3010±150 & BC 1255 \ Area 2-1 B-1/No.2 & Mumun & 2540±140 & BC 770 \ Area 1-D /No.22 & Mumun & 2770±160 & BC 910 \ Area 1-D /No.23 & Mumun & 2850±40 & BC 1005 \ Area 2-1 F/No.1 & Chulmun & 4530±50 & BC 3175 \ Area 2-1 F/No.2 & Chulmun & 4550±50 & BC 3175 \ Area 1-G /No.4 & Mumun & 2700±40 & BC 835 \ Area 1-G /No.2 & Mumun & 2680±50 & BC 830 \ Area 1-H /No.5 & Mumun & 2380±40 & BC 455 \ Area 1-H /No.12 & Mumun & 2770±40 & BC 935 \ Area 2-1 B-1/No.3 & Mumun & 2950±50 & BC 1175 \ Area 2-1 J/No.1 & Mumun & 2670±40 & BC 820 \ Area 2-1 J/No.3 & Mumun & 2820±50 & BC 975 \ Area 2-1 J/No.4 & Mumun & 2740±50 & BC 875 \ Area 2-1 J/No.6 & Mumun & 2830±50 & BC 980 \ Area 2-1 J/No.9 & Chulmun & 4020±50 & BC 2525 \ Area 2-1 J/No.10 & Mumun & 2710±40 & BC 860 \ Area 2-1 J/No.12 & Mumun & 2900±50 & BC 1100 \ Area 2-1 J/No.13 & Mumun & 2650±50 & BC 815 \ Area 2-1 J/No.13 & Mumun & 2920±50 & BC 1130 \ Area 2-1 J/No.16 & Mumun & 2630±40 & BC 808 \ Area 2-1 J/No.18 & Mumun & 2560±50 & BC 775 \ Area 2-1 K/No.1 & Mumun & 2900±50 & BC 1100 \ Area 2-1 K/No.2 & Mumun & 2630±40 & BC 808 \ Area 1-K /No.3 & Mumun & 3020±50 & BC 1300 \ Area 1-L /No.3 & Mumun & 2960±50 & BC 1190 \ Area 1-L /No.5 & Mumun & 2750±50 & BC 885 \ Area 1-L /No.6 & Mumun & 2550±40 & BC 770 \ Area 1-L /No.10 & Mumun & 2820±50 & BC 975 \ Area 1-L /No.11 & Mumun & 2910±50 & BC 1105 \ Area 1-L /No.12 & Mumun & 2820±60 & BC 975 \ Area 1-L /No.13 & Mumun & 2750±50 & BC 885 \ Area 1-L /No.14 & Mumun & 2800±50 & BC 955 \ Area 1-L /No.15 & Mumun & 3090±60 & BC 1360 \ Area 1-L /No.16 & Mumun & 2990±50 & BC 1215 \ Area 1-L /No.17 & Mumun & 2910±50 & BC 1105 \ Area 1-L /No.19 & Mumun & 2720±50 & BC 863 \ Area 1-L /No.20 & Mumun & 2550±50 & BC 770 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.1 & Mumun & 2520±50 & BC 595 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.3 & Mumun & 2660±60 & BC 845 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.4 & Mumun & 2760±50 & BC 885 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.6 & Mumun & 2680±56 & BC 830 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.7 & Mumun & 2710±50 & BC 858 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.8 & Mumun & 2920±50 & BC 1130 \ Area 2-3 Na /No.15 & Mumun & 2850±50 & BC 1010 \ Area 2-4 Ga /No. 2 & Baekje Kingdom & 1730±80 & AD 320 \ Area 2-4 Ga /No. 11 & Baekje Kingdom & 1670±50 & AD 375 \ Area 2-4 Ga /No. 13 & Baekje Kingdom & 1670±60 & AD 375 \ Area 2-4 Ga /No. 8 & BaekJe Kingdom & 1880±60 & AD 145 \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of the AMS radiocarbon dating of the Kimpo-Yangcho site} \label{tab:radiocarbon_KM} \end{longtable}

\newpage \begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) \ \midrule \endhead KIM030 & Area 2-3 Na/No.3 & Body & 2660±150 \ KIM031 & Area 2-3 Na/No.3 & Body & \ KIM032 & Area 2-3 Na/No.7 & Body & 2710±150 \ KIM033 & Area 2-3 Na/No.7 & Body & 2710±150 \ KIM034 & Area 2-3 Na/No.7 & Body & 2760±150 \ KIM035 & Area 2-3 Na/No.8 & Body & 2920±150 \ KIM036 & Area 2-3 Na/No.8 & Body & 2920±150 \ KIM037 & Area 2-3 Na/No.8 & Body & 2920±150 \ KIM038 & Area 2-3 Na/No.11 & Body & \ KIM039 & Area 2-1 L/No.3 & Body & 2960±150 \ KIM040 & Area 2-1 L/No.3 & Body & 2960±150 \ KIM041 & Area 2-1 L/No.3 & Body & 2960±150 \ KIM042 & Area 2-1 L/No.10 & Rim & 2820±150 \ KIM043 & Area 2-1 L/No.10 & Body & 2820±150 \ KIM044 & Area 2-1 L/No.11 & Body & 2910±150 \ KIM045 & Area 2-1 L/No.11 & Body & 2910±150 \ KIM046 & Area 2-1 F/No.1 & Body & 4530±150 (Chulmun) \ KIM047 & Area 2-1 F/No.1 & Body & 4530±150 (Chulmun) \ KIM048 & Area 2-1 B-1/No.1 & Body & \ KIM049 & Area 2-1 D/No.14 & Body & \ KIM050 & Area 2-1 D/No.14 & Body & \ KIM051 & Area 2-1 D/No.8 & Body & \ KIM052 & Area 2-1 D/No.8 & Body & \ KIM053 & Area 2-1 D/No.9 & Body & \ KIM054 & Area 2-1 D/No.9 & Body & \ KIM055 & Area 2-1 D/No.15 & Body & \ KIM056 & Area 2-1 D/No.15 & Body & \ KIM057 & Area 2-1 L/No.3 & Body & \ KIM058 & Area 2-1 D/No.10 & Body & \ KIM059 & Area 2-3 NA/No.5 & Body & \ KIM060 & Area 2-3 NA/No.5 & Body & \ KIM061 & Area 2-1 G/No.3 & Body & \ KIM062 & Area 2-1 G/No.3 & Body & \ KIM063 & Area 2-1 H/No.5 & Body & 2380±140 \ KIM064 & Area 2-1 H/No.5 & Body & 2380±140 \ KIM065 & Area 2-1 H/No.12 & Body & 2770±140 \ KIM066 & Area 2-1 H/No.12 & Body & 2770±140 \ KIM067 & Area 2-1 H/No.20 & Body & \ KIM068 & Area 2-1 H/No.20 & Body & \ KIM069 & Area 2-4 Ra/No.20 & Body & \ KIM070 & Area 2-3 Na/No.3 & Body & \ KIM071 & Area 2-1 B-1/No.3 & Body & \ KIM072 & Area 2-1 D/No.14 & Body & \ KIM073 & Area 2-1 G/No.5 & Rim & \ KIM074 & Area 2-1 G/No.5 & Body & \ KIM075 & Area 2-1 J/No.1 & Body & \ KIM076 & Area 2-1 L/No.1 & Body & \ KIM077 & Area 2-1 D/No.9 & Body & \ KIM078 & Area 2-1 L/No.9 & Rim & \ \bottomrule \caption{The samples collected from the Kimpo-Yangchon site for the organic geochemical analysis} \label{tab:sampling_OG_KM} \end{longtable}

\subsection{Sampling}

\subsubsection{Organic geochemical analysis}

At least two samples were collected from each of the houses, except those which did not yield pottery, and of which the date could not be estimated. If available, three samples were collected from one house. One sample was collected from some house pits which did not yield enough potsherds. Researches have showed that the pottery for the ordinary day-to-day subsistence around this period tend to have rather monotonous characteristics in terms of shape and size [@Bae2007; @Shoda2008]. Therefore, the shape and size of the pottery were relatively not critical issues for sampling. According to the experimental analysis of Evershed [@Evershed2008], the rim and upper body parts of pots are where organic residues are the most concentrated after cooking [cf. @Barker2012; @Eerkens2007]. Ethnographic observations showed that generally, high-temperature boiling is regarded as a particularly effective cooking method in the preparation of faunal and floral resources in pots [@Crown1995; @Stahl1989; @Wandsnider1997]. During this process, convection currents of boiling water push extracted lipids from food stuffs to the pot wall. Since lipids float on water, they tend to accumulate and penetrate into the wall of the upper body and rim of the pot. Taking these facts as criteria, a total of 49 samples were collected (Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_KM}, Figure \ref{km_map}). Since some of the house pits were dated by the AMS radiocarbon dating, if there are available dates from the house pits where the samples were collected, I indicated them in Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_KM}.

\subsubsection{Luminescence dating} For the luminescence dating two samples were collected. Both of the samples were collected from a house which was not dated (Table \ref{tab:sampling_LM_KM}, Figure \ref{km_map}).

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & Depth (m) \ \midrule U3045 & Area 2-1 L/No.3 & Body & 0.3 \ U3046 & Area 2-1 D/No.10 & Body & 0.3 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The samples collected from the Kimpo-Yangchon site for the luminescence dating in this thesis} \label{tab:sampling_LM_KM} \end{table}

\subsection{Organic geochemical results}

Before collecting 49 samples from the Kimpo-Yangchon site for the organic geochemical analysis in this thesis, 25 samples were collected for a preliminary analysis. They were all collected based on the same criteria that were mentioned in the "sampling" section. The purpose of the preliminary analysis is to ascertain the applicability of the organic geochemical analysis to examining the potteries from the central part of the Korean Peninsula. The samples were analyzed in accordance with the well-known standard solvent extraction protocol that demands the use of solvent mixture (chloroform-methanol 2 : 1 v/v; cf. chapter four), at the organic geochemistry unit, University of Bristol, under the guidance of Dr. Richard P. Evershed. Unfortunately, since the lipid concentration of the samples was so low, I was not able to extract an analyzable amount of lipids from those 25 samples (cf. Figure \ref{protocol}a). Following Dr. Evershed's suggestion, the direction of examination was changed to employ the methanolic acid extraction protocol [@Correa-Ascencio2014, cf. chapter four].In this thesis, all the 49 samples from the Kimpo-Yangchon site were analyzed by the acid extraction protocol.

Table \ref{tab:CSIA_KM} and Figure \ref{CSIAKimpo}, \ref{CSIAKM2}, and \ref{CSIAKM3} show the results of the organic geochemical analyses. Among the 49 samples, I was able to analyze 20. 29 samples had to be omitted mainly due to contamination and low concentration of lipids. In spite of going through the cleaning process of samples using drill bits to minimize contamination, in accordance with the standard protocol (cf. Chapter four), not all the sherds were suitable for the analysis. This is mainly because of poor handling of the pottery during the excavation and curation processes. Generally, the most frequently observed compounds in archaeological lipid residues are palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids [@Evershed2008]. As expected, the organic compounds of all samples were dominated by those two saturated fatty acids (Figure \ref{chromatogram1}). This means those organic compounds were highly degraded in soil during several thousand years of post-depositional processes (cf. Chapter four). Nevertheless, with the results of GC-MS analyses, I was able to identify both major short- and long-chain (un)saturated fatty acids including C14:0, C15:0, C15:1, C17:0, C18:1, C20:0, C22:0, C22:2, and C24:0.

\begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}lp{5cm}llp{4cm}@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Compound detected & C16:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & C18:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & Interpretation via CSIA \ \midrule \endhead KIM038 & C14:0, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C20:0, C21:0, C22:0, C24:0 & -29.6 & -31.2 & Ruminant adipose \ KIM042 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C20:1, C22:0, C24:0 & -28.8 & -27.3 & Not identifiable \ KIM043 & C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0 & -26.7 & -25.4 & Pork adipose \ KIM044 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C24:0 & -25.6 & -26.2 & Aquatic resource and/or Pork adipose \ KIM049 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C24:0 & -16.8 & -17.2 & Marine \ KIM051 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C23:0, C24:0 & -27.8 & -27.7 & Pork adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ KIM052 & C16:0, C18:0, C22:2 & -27.9 & -29.3 & Ruminant adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ KIM057 & C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C20:1 & -24.8 & -22.5 & Pork adipose \ KIM059 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C19:0, C20:0, C24:0 & -27.3 & -27.7 & Not identifiable \ KIM060 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C20:0, C20:1, C22:0, C24:0 & -26.7 & -24.7 & Pork adipose \ KIM061 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, phytanic acid & -23 & -25.4 & Marine \ KIM062 & C16:0, C18:0 & -27.8 & -26.9 & Pork adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ KIM069 & C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0 & -25.7 & -26.6 & Aquatic resource and/or Pork adipose \ KIM071 & C16:0, C18:0 & -28.7 & -29.8 & Ruminant adipose \ KIM072 & C16:0, C18:0 & -28.3 & -29.7 & Ruminant adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ KIM073 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0 & -27.2 & -27.8 & Pork adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ KIM075 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C20:1 & -24.1 & -23.5 & Marine and/or Pork adipose \ KIM076 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0 & -26.5 & -26.4 & Pork adipose \ KIM077 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0 & -27.3 & -27.5 & Not identifiable \ KIM078 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0 & -21.8 & -24.7 & Marine \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of the organic geochemical analysis by GC-MS and GC-C-IRMS of the samples from the Kimpo-Yangchon site, and their interpretations} \label{tab:CSIA_KM} \end{longtable}

There are compounds which are only found in certain food groups. Especially, phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid) and 4,8,12-TMTD (4,8,12-trimethyltridecanoic acid) are isoprenoid compounds which are mostly found in a particularly high concentration in marine animals [@Evershed2008b, cf. Chapter four]. Along with thermally produced long-chain $\omega$-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids, these compounds are indicators of aquatic/marine resources [@Craig2011; @Evershed2008a]. Since the Kimpo-Yangchon site is only 4 kilometers apart from the Han river (Figure \ref{site_locations_zoomin}), it is essential to know whether its dwellers relied on aquatic resources. Among those 20 samples, one sample showed the presence of phytanic acid (KIM061), indicating the possibility that those pots would have been used for processing aquatic resources (cf. Figure \ref{chromatogram1}).

The results of the isotope analyses (Figure \ref{CSIAKimpo}; \ref{CSIAKM2}; \ref{CSIAKM3}) effected on palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids on the samples show more interesting characteristics of these ancient farmers' diet. They indicate that they consumed various food stuffs including pork, C~3~ plants, ruminants, and aquatic resources (Fresh water and Marine). Many samples indicate that the pots from which they came were used for processing multiple foodstuffs. The dominant food classes were the pork and the aquatic resources, which occupied respectively nine and six samples, that is, about 45 and 30 percent of all the samples.

The result of CSIA on KIM061 agreed with that of GC-MS analysis, indicating the pot in question was used for processing marine resources. 25 percent (five samples) shows the presence of C~3~ plant oils. However, it has to be carefully considered whether this means rice occupied about one-fourth of those farmers' diet. Firstly, C~3~ plants include not only rice, but also legumes and barley. As G. Lee (2011) mentioned, we have pollen data from 5,500 BP to 2,600 BP showing the ancient farmers of the Korean Peninsula utilized soybean (Glycine max) and azuki (Vignaaugularis) as subsistence resources. Therefore, it is impetuous to argue that the detected C~3~ plant oils are from rice alone. Secondly, since the area of C~3~ plant oils in Figure \ref{CSIAKimpo} could indicate the mixture of pork and ruminant adipose (cf. Chapter four), we do not have any assurance that the C~3~ plant oils of which the presence is indicated by those five samples are actually plant oil. Lastly, all of the samples identified as revealing C~3~ plant oils are also interpreted as containing pork and ruminant adipose, for the ellipses of C~3~ plant oils and pork adipose overlap each other (cf. Figure \ref{CSIAKimpo}; \ref{CSIAKM2}; \ref{overlap}). Therefore, under this circumstance, assuming the total diet can be reflected in ceramic residues, what we can draw from the given data is that 'at most', rice occupied about one-fourth of the diet of the ancient farmers at the Kimpo-Yangchon site.

\newpage \subsection{Luminescence dating results}

The samples were dated using TL, OSL, and IRSL at the luminescence dating lab, University of Washington.

Table \ref{tab:LM_KM} shows the results of the luminescence dating. The OSL and TL ages were in agreement for the sample UW3045, and TL fading was not significant. The IRSL age is younger, probably due to the anomalous fading. The OSL age was the best estimate for the sample UW3046. The IRSL age for UW3056 was younger, probably due to the fading. Overall, the dates match with the main occupation period of the Kimpo-Yangchon site estimated by the radiocarbon dates.

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}lp{1cm}p{1.5cm}p{1.75cm}lllp{1.75cm}@{}} \toprule Lab. No & Depth (m) & Water Content (\%) & Dose rate* (Gy/ka) & TL (De) & OSL (De) & IRSL (De) & Age (BC) \ \midrule U3045 & 0.3 & 10.7 & 5.227±0.486 & 13.625±3.55 & 12.819±0.296 & 11.141±0.429 & 740±160 \ U3046 & 0.3 & 15.1 & 6.880±0.579 & 10.792±2.031 & 11.775±0.389 & 10.16±0.445 & 740±180 (OSL) \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The results of the luminescence dating of the potsherd samples from the Kimpo-Yangchon site. } \label{tab:LM_KM} \end{table}

\newpage \section{Sosa-Dong}

The Sosa-Dong site is located on the low hill of Sosa-Dong, Pyeongtaek city, Gyeonggi province. The site is about 2.5 kilometers north of the Anseong stream (Figure \ref{site_locations}; \ref{site_locations_zoomin}).The excavation was conducted by Korea institute of Heritage, from September 2004 to September 2006 [@Kim2008]. The site includes various archaeological phenomena such as house pits, mound burials, pit graves, pit features and ditches which belong to different time periods from the Mumun period to the historical Joseon Dynasty (AD 1392 - 1897).

A total of 81 Mumun period house pits were found. Based on the results of the radiocarbon dating of charcoal from the house pits [@Kim2008, Table \ref{tab:radiocarbon_SS}], it is inferred that the site goes back to the times as early as the incipient/early stage of the Mumun period, or as late as the middle/late Mumun period (cf. Figure \ref{ss_radio}; \ref{Radiocarbon_dates}). The house pits are classified into four types based on their shape: square, circular, rectangular, and longhouse. The rectangular and longhouse pits were built around the early stage of the Mumun period (3000 - 2700 BP); and the square and circular pits near the late Mumun period (2500 - 2300 BP). According to the radiocarbon dating on the charcoal from hearths in the house pits, the site has a chronological void from 2700 BP to 2500 BP (Table \ref{tab:radiocarbon_SS}). Some of these houses incorporate hearths, storage pits and ditches as interior features. Most of the potteries have the rim-punctuation or a combination of lip-scoring/rim-punctuation; and others a combination of double-rim/short slanted incision or rim-punctuation/short slanted incision (figure \ref{SS-artifacts}). As for the ground stone tools, arrowheads, daggers, chisels and axes were found (Figure \ref{SS-artifacts}). As for the farming tools, semi-lunar shaped stone knives (Figure \ref{farming}b) and mortars/pestles were found. Especially, carbonized 46 rice (Oryza sativa; Figure \ref{Rice}a) and 31 possible barley (Hodeum vulgare L.; Figure \ref{Rice}b) grains were found inside of one house pit, near the hearth (Area "Ga"/No. 10).

The overall archaeological phenomena of the Sosa-Dong site are quite similar to those of the Kimpo-Yangchon site. The composition of different types of house pits, potteries and stone artifacts clearly indicate the resemblance between the two sites. Probably one of the most interesting features of the Sosa-Dong site compared with the Kimpo-Yangchon site is carbonized rice and possible barley grains. Considering their 'burnt' condition, it is beyond all doubt that rice and barley were cooked for consumption.

\begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Location/house pit No. & Cultural historical period & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) & Calendar date \ \midrule \endhead Area La/No. 20 & Mumun & 3010±60 & BC 1240 \ Area Da/No. 5 & Mumun & 2990±50 & BC 1220 \ Area Da/No. 6 & Mumun & 2990±50 & BC 1220 \ Area Ga/No. 17 & Mumun & 2950±50 & BC 1160 \ Area Ga/No. 7 & Mumun & 2930±60 & BC 1150 \ Area Da/No. 7 & Mumun & 2930±50 & BC 1150 \ Area La/No. 10 & Mumun & 2900±50 & BC 1120 \ Area Ga/No. 2 & Mumun & 2850±60 & BC 1060 \ Area Ga/No. 10 & Mumun & 2840±50 & BC 1050 \ Area Ga/No. 14 & Mumun & 2850±50 & BC 1050 \ Area Ga/No. 16 & Mumun & 2840±50 & BC 1050 \ Area Ga/No. 18 & Mumun & 2840±50 & BC 1050 \ Area Ga/No. 28 & Mumun & 2850±50 & BC 1050 \ Area Da/No. 4 & Mumun & 2810±50 & BC 980 \ Area Ga/No. 20 & Mumun & 2750±50 & BC 910 \ Area La/No. 4 & Mumun & 2740±50 & BC 900 \ Chronological void & & & \ Area Ga/No. 13 & Mumun & 2550±50 & BC 670 \ Area La/No. 7 & Mumun & 2470±80 & BC 600 \ Area Ga/No. 15 & Mumun & 2470±60 & BC 590 \ Area Ga/No. 4 & Mumun & 2300±50 & BC 310 \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of AMS radiocarbon dating of the Sosa-Dong site} \label{tab:radiocarbon_SS} \end{longtable}

\subsection{Sampling}

\subsubsection{Organic geochemical analysis}

The general sampling strategy for the organic geochemical analysis on the Sosa-Dong site is quite similar to that on the Kimpo-Yangchon site. At least two samples were collected from each of the houses, except those which did not yield pottery, and whose date could not be estimated. If available, three samples were collected from one house. One sample was collected from some house pits which did not yield enough potsherds. The shape and size of the pots were not considered, for the pottery for the ordinary day-to-day subsistence around this period tend to have rather monotonous characteristics in terms of shape and size [@Bae2007; @Shoda2008]. Following the criteria of Evershed [-@Evershed2008, Figure \ref{lipidcon}], the rim and upper body parts were chosen and a total of 37 samples were collected (Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_SS}, Figure \ref{ss_map}). If there are available radiocarbon dates from the house pits where the samples were collected, I indicated them in Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_SS}.

\newpage \begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) \ \midrule \endhead SOS030 & Area La/No. 14 & Body & \ SOS031 & Area La/No. 4 & Body & \ SOS032 & Area La/No. 4 & Rim & \ SOS033 & Area La/No. 4 & Rim & \ SOS034 & Area Ga/No. 7 & Body & 2930±60 \ SOS035 & Area Ga/No. 10 & Body & 2840±50 \ SOS036 & Area Ga/No. 10 & Body & 2840±50 \ SOS037 & Area Ga/No. 14 & Body & 2850±50 \ SOS038 & Area Ga/No. 14 & Body & 2850±50 \ SOS039 & Area La/No. 11 & Rim & \
SOS040 & Area La/No. 11 & Body & \ SOS041 & Area La/No. 11 & Body & \ SOS042 & Area Ga/No. 23 & Body & \ SOS043 & Area Ga/No. 23 & Body & \ SOS044 & Area Ga/No. 24 & Body & \ SOS045 & Area Ga/No. 24 & Body & \ SOS046 & Area Ga/No. 25 & Body & \ SOS047 & Area Ga/No. 25 & Body & \ SOS048 & Area La/No. 15 & Rim & \ SOS049 & Area La/No. 15 & Rim & \ SOS050 & Area La/No. 15 & Rim & \ SOS051 & Area La/No. 2 & Body & \ SOS052 & Area La/No. 2 & Body & \ SOS053 & Area La/No. 5 & Body & \ SOS054 & Area La/No. 5 & Body & \ SOS055 & Area La/No. 10 & Body & 2900±50 \ SOS056 & Area La/No. 10 & Rim & 2900±50 \ SOS057 & Area La/No. 19 & Body & \ SOS058 & Area La/No. 19 & Body & \ SOS059 & Area La/No. 18 & Body & \ SOS060 & Area La/No. 18 & Body & \ SOS061 & Area La/No. 31 & Body & \ SOS062 & Area La/No. 31 & Body & \ SOS063 & Area La/No. 31 & Body & \ SOS064 & Area La/No. 32 & Body & \ SOS065 & Area La/No. 32 & Body & \ SOS066 & Area La/No. 36 & Body & \ \bottomrule \caption{The samples collected from the Sosa-Dong site for the organic geochemical analysis} \label{tab:sampling_OG_SS} \end{longtable}

\subsubsection{Luminescence dating}

As at the Kimpo-Yangchon site, two samples were collected for the luminescence dating. One of the two samples was collected from a house which had been dated by the radiocarbon dating, and the other from another which had not been (Table \ref{tab:sampling_LM_SS}, Figure \ref{ss_map}).

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & Depth (m) \ \midrule U3042 & Area La/No.4 & Body & 0.3 \ U3043 & Area La/No.14 & Body & 0.3 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{ The samples collected from the Sosa-Dong site for the luminescence dating in this thesis} \label{tab:sampling_LM_SS} \end{table}

\subsection{Organic geochemical results}

As at the Kimpo-Yangchon site, before collecting 37 samples, 21 samples were collected for a preliminary analysis to ensure the analytical protocol. The samples were collected based on the same sampling strategy in this thesis and analyzed by the standard solvent extraction protocol (chloroform-methanol 2 : 1 v/v; cf. chapter four) at the organic geochemistry unit, University of Bristol. However, it was nearly impossible to extract lipids from those samples, due to their low concentration (cf. Figure \ref{protocol}a). Under this circumstance, the direction of examination was changed to employ the methanolic acid extraction protocol [@Correa-Ascencio2014, cf. chapter four]. In this thesis, all the 37 samples from the Sosa-Dong site were analyzed by the acid extraction protocol.

Table \ref{tab:CSIA_SS}, Figure \ref{CSIASosa}, \ref{CSIASosa2}, and \ref{CSIASosa3} show the results of the organic geochemical analyses. Among the 37 samples, 28 were analyzable. Nine samples had to be omitted mainly due to contamination and the low concentration of lipids. Compared with that of the Kimpo-Yangchon site (20 analyzable samples among 49), this recovery rate is quite high. Considering that there are spatio-temporal similarities between the two sites, their difference in recovery rate of samples probably means the potsherds were more carefully treated during the excavation and curation processes in case of the Sosa-Dong site.

As I mentioned above, the most frequently observed compounds in archaeological lipid residues are the palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids [@Evershed2008]. The Sosa-Dong site was not an exception, and the organic compounds of all samples were dominated by those two saturated fatty acids, due to the degradation in soil during several thousand years of post-depositional processes (Figure \ref{chromatogram2}). Along with the C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids, I was able to identify both major short- and long-chain (un)saturated fatty acids including C13:0, C14:0, C15:0, C15:1, C16:1, C17:0, C18:1, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, and C24:1.

\begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}lp{5cm}llp{4cm}@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Compound detected & C16:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & C18:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & Interpretation via CSIA \ \midrule \endhead SOS030 & C16:0, C18:0 & -25.7 & -27.3 & Fresh water and/or Marine \ SOS031 & C16:0, C17:0, C18:0 & -26 & -27.9 & Fresh water and/or Marine \ SOS032 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -23.8 & -25.7 & Marine \ SOS033 & C14:0, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -22.8 & -31.1 & Not identifiable \ SOS035 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -29.5 & -27.2 & Not identifiable \ SOS036 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -22.8 & -24.5 & Marine \ SOS037 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C20:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -28.8 & -28.5 & C3 plant oil \ SOS038 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:1, C20:0, C22:0. C22:1, C24:1 & -26.5 & -24.3 & Pork adipose \ SOS039 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -30.7 & -28.1 & Equine adipose \ SOS040 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -26.2 & -23.5 & Pork adipose \ SOS041 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -26 & -23.6 & Pork adipose \ SOS042 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -23.2 & -23.9 & Marine \ SOS043 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:1, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:1 & -26.8 & -26.3 & Pork adipose \ SOS045 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -28.6 & -27.7 & C3 plant oil \ SOS047 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -29 & -27.5 & C3 plant oil \ SOS048 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -26.1 & -23.9 & Pork adipose \ SOS049 & C16:0, C18:0, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C24:0, C24:1, phytanic acid & -27.4 & -24.3 & Pork adipose and aquatic resources \ SOS050 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -27.9 & -23.6 & Not identifiable \ SOS051 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -22.3 & -21.4 & Marine \ SOS054 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -25.2 & -25.7 & Fresh water and/or Marine \ SOS055 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1, C22:1, C24:1 & -27.4 & -27.4 & C3 plant oil and/or Pork adipose \ SOS056 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1, phytanic acid & -24.6 & -22.3 & Pork adipose and aquatic resources \ SOS057 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -25.4 & -23 & Pork adipose \ SOS058 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -29 & -25 & Not identifiable \ SOS060 & C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -25.8 & -24.2 & Pork adipose \ SOS062 & C14:0, C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -25.9 & -23.5 & Pork adipose \ SOS063 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -25.3 & -23.1 & Pork adipose \ SOS064 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -25.2 & -26.3 & Fresh water and/or Marine \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of the organic geochemical analysis by GC-MS and GC-C-IRMS of the samples from the Sosa-Dong site, and their interpretations} \label{tab:CSIA_SS} \end{longtable}

The geographic location of the Sosa-Dong site is quite similarly to that of the Kimpo-Yangchon site. The site is only 2.5 kilometers apart from the Anseong stream, and also close to the Yellow Sea (Figure \ref{site_locations_zoomin}). This means it is quite possible that the farmers of the Sosa-Dong site performed fishing also. During the excavation of the Sosa-Dong site, a total of 17 net sinkers were found. In this regard, it is essential to know whether the dwellers of the Sosa-Dong site relied on aquatic resources. According to Evershed et al. [-@Evershed2008a], phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid), 4,8,12-TMTD (4,8,12-trimethyltridecanoic acid) and thermally produced long-chain $\omega$-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids are the indicators of aquatic/marine resources [cf. @Craig2011]. Among those 28 samples, two samples showed the presence of phytanic acid (SOS049, SOS056), indicating the possibility that those pots would have been used for processing aquatic resources (cf. Figure \ref{chromatogram2}).

The results of the isotope analysis effected on palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids on the samples show a varied diet of these ancient farmers. The results (Figure \ref{CSIASosa}; \ref{CSIASosa2}; \ref{CSIASosa3}) indicate that they consumed several food stuffs including pork, aquatic resources, and C~3~ plants. The diet of the ancient dwellers of the Sosa-Dong site was dominated by pork and aquatic (freshwater and marine) resources. About 40 percent of the samples shows the presence of pork adipose. At most only 14 percent (4 samples) shows the presence of C~3~ plant oil. Considering that 17 net sinkers were found at the site, it is not surprising that about 30 percent (8 samples) indicates the presence of aquatic resources. As a whole, the diet pattern of the Sosa-Dong site is somewhat similar to that of the Kimpo-Yangchon site.

\newpage \subsection{Luminescence dating results}

The samples were dated using TL, OSL, and IRSL at the luminescence dating lab, University of Washington.

Table \ref{tab:LM_SS} shows the results of the luminescence dating. The OSL and TL ages were in agreement for the sample UW3042, and TL fading was not significant. The IRSL age was younger, probably because of the fading of feldspar. The OSL, IRSL, and TL ages were in agreement for the sample UW3043 (the fading was not significant). The dates were slightly younger than the main occupation period of the Sosa-Dong site estimated by the radiocarbon dates.

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}p{1cm}p{1cm}p{1.5cm}p{1.75cm}lllp{1.75cm}@{}} \toprule Lab. No & Depth (m) & Water Content (\%) & Dose rate* (Gy/ka) & TL (De) & OSL (De) & IRSL (De) & Age (BC) \ \midrule U3042 & 0.3 & 18.4 & 7.872±0.475 & 20.97±1.59 & 14.487±0.43 & 13.194±0.307 & 650±140 \ U3043 & 0.3 & 19.7 & 6.664±0.40 & 13.999±1.469 & 11.958±0.229 & 14.18±0.591 & 390±110 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The results of the luminescence dating of the potsherd samples from the Sosa-Dong site} \label{tab:LM_SS} \end{table}

\newpage \section{Songguk-Ri}

Among the thousands of prehistoric archaeological phenomena in the Korean Peninsula, probably one of the most well-known and thoroughly studied sites is the Songguk-Ri site. Located in Buyeo city, Chungnam province, South Korea, it belongs to the Middle and Late Mumun period (Figure \ref{site_locations}; \ref{site_locations_zoomin}). The initial excavation was conducted in 1975; and Songguk-Ri became the first archaeological site in Korea, which yielded bronze artifacts, tubular greenstone (jade) beads, typical un-patterned pottery and rounded pit-houses with two post holes (Figure \ref{SON-artifacts}). These characteristic rounded pit houses were also found at other archaeological sites of later excavation, along with similar assemblages. It is why archaeologists recognized Songguk-Ri as a certain archaeological type of the Middle Mumun period, and designated both the formers and the latters 'the Songguk-ri Style'. Until now, the site has been excavated 14 times by different branches of the National Museum of Korea and the Korean National University of Cultural heritage [@BuyeoNationalMuseum2000; @NationalMuseumofKorea1979; -@NationalMuseumofKorea1986; @NationalMuseumofKorea1987; @Kim2011; -@Kim2013a].

Groups of pit-houses are found in various spots in an area of almost several square kilometers. The un-patterned potteries excavated from the site were named 'the Songguk-Ri style pottery'; and potteries of this style were found at many other sites in the central part of the Korean Peninsula with typical assemblages. The evidence of a wooden fence around the residential area indicates conflict and competition between the local Mumun societies [@NationalResearchInstituteofCulturalHeritage2002]. A number of smaller settlements presumed to be formed about the same period were found within the radius of several kilometers from Songguk-Ri. The site also includes stone-cist burials with a Liaoning-style bronze dagger, large tubular-shaped greenstone ornaments and a ground stone dagger (Figure \ref{SON-artifacts}). The high status materials (e.g. bronze dagger, green stone beads) in stone cist burials at the site and a number of small settlements around it led archaeologists to assume that in Songguk-Ri and its vicinity appeared the earliest form of social hierarchy in the ancient Korean Peninsula. With the importance of the site, it is registered as "Historical Site No. 249 (the Cultural heritage Administration of Korea)".

The latest excavation of the Songguk-Ri site was conducted by the Korean National University of Cultural Heritage. The 12th to 14th excavations were held from April of 2008 to September of 2011 [@Kim2011; -@Kim2013]. As for the Mumun period, 47 house pits and 34 pit features were found. Based on the results of the radiocarbon dating of charcoal from the house pits and pit features [@Kim2011; -@Kim2013, Table \ref{tab:radiocarbon_SG}], the site was classified into the middle/late Mumun period (cf. Figure \ref{sg_radio}; \ref{Radiocarbon_dates}). The house pits are classified into four types by their shape: circular, square, rectangular. No longhouse was found, for this type existed only during the incipient/early stage of the Mumun period. As for ground stone tools, arrowheads, semi-lunar shaped stone knives, spindle whorl, and pieces of green stone beads were excavated.

During the 14th excavation, several kinds of carbonized grains were found at 11 different features including house pits and pit features. The confirmed kinds were rice (Oryza sativa), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), broomcorn millet (Panicum Millaceum), soybean (Glycine max) and azuki (Vigna augularis). The two dominant grains were foxtail millet and rice, which occupied respectively about 65 and 32 percent of the identified ones, (their respective number: 5798 and 2892).

![(a): some of the artifacts uncovered during the excavation of the Songguk-Ri site: pot, large tubular-shaped greenstone ornaments, semi-lunar shaped stone knife, arrowheads, ground stone dagger, and Liaoning-style bronze dagger [@Yoon2010] (b): the "Songguk-Ri style" rounded pit-house with two post holes [@Yoon2010] \label{SON-artifacts}](figures/SON-artifacts.jpg)

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule house pit No. & Cultural historical period & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) & Calendar date \ \midrule No. 2 & Mumun & 2430±50 & BC 475 \ No. 23 & Mumun & 2540±50 & BC 660 \ No. 23 & Mumun & 2450±40 & BC 580 \ No. 26 & Mumun & 2350±60 & BC 450 \ No. 26 & Mumun & 2360±50 & BC 450 \ No. 38 & Mumun & 2500±60 & BC 655 \ No. 39 & Mumun & 2590±50 & BC 785 \ No. 43 & Mumun & 2220±60 & BC 260 \ No. 48 & Mumun & 2520±50 & BC 595 \ No. 51 & Mumun & 2410±40 & BC 470 \ No. 51 & Mumun & 2520±40 & BC 650 \ No. 52 & Mumun & 2560±40 & BC 680 \ No. 52 & Mumun & 2460±40 & BC 580 \ No. 67 & Mumun & 2420±40 & BC 470 \ No. 67 & Mumun & 2490±50 & BC 650 \ No. 68 & Mumun & 2440±40 & BC 580 \ No. 70 & Mumun & 2410±40 & BC 470 \ No. 70 & Mumun & 2430±50 & BC 580 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{ The results of the AMS radiocarbon dating of the Songguk-Ri site} \label{tab:radiocarbon_SG} \end{table}

\subsection{Sampling}

\subsection{Organic geochemical analysis}

The samples for the organic geochemical analysis were collected during the 14th excavation of the Songguk-Ri site. The general sampling strategy for the site was somewhat different from that of the Kimpo-Yangchon and Sosa-Dong sites. Since the potsherds from the Songguk-Ri site were quite scarce, all the available ones which were conceded by the institution were sampled for the analysis. Under these circumstances, I collected a total of 27 samples from 16 house pits and 2 pit features (Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_SG}, Figure \ref{sg_map}). Unfortunately, no rim and upper body parts were selectively collected, for none of the available potsherds came from the rim portion. If there are available radiocarbon dates from the house pits where the samples were collected, I have indicated in Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_SG}.

\newpage \begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}lllll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) \ \midrule \endhead SON001 & No. 52 & Body & 2560±40, 2460±40 \ SON002 & No. 53 & Body & & \ SON003 & No. 54 & Body & & \ SON004 & No. 60 & Body & & \ SON005 & No. 70 & Body & & \ SON006 & No. 73 & Body & & \ SON007 & No. 77 & Body & & \ SON008 & No. 54 (pit feature) & Body & & \ SON009 & No. 59 (pit feature) & Body & & \ SON010 & No. 51 & Body & 2410±40, 2520±40 \ SON011 & No. 51 & Body & 2410±40, 2520±40 \ SON012 & No. 60 & Body & & \ SON013 & No. 60 & Body & & \ SON014 & No. 61 & Body & & \ SON015 & No. 72 & Body & & \ SON016 & No. 72 & Body & & \ SON017 & No. 74 & Body & & \ SON018 & No. 74 & Body & & \ SON019 & No. 52 & Body & 2560±40, 2460±40 \ SON020 & No. 53 & Body & & \ SON021 & No. 58 & Body & & \ SON022 & No. 58 & Body & & \ SON023 & No. 59 & Body & & \ SON024 & No. 59 & Body & & \ SON025 & No. 62 & Body & & \ SON026 & No. 63 & Body & & \ SON027 & No. 69 & Body & & \ \bottomrule

\caption{The samples collected from the Songguk-Ri site for the organic geochemical analysis in this thesis} \label{tab:sampling_OG_SG} \end{longtable}

\subsubsection{Luminescence dating}

Unfortunately, no sample was collected for the Luminescence dating. This is due to the scarcity of potsherds unearthed during the 14th excavation.

\subsection{Organic geochemical results}

Table \ref{tab:CSIA_SG}, Figure \ref{CSIASongguk}, \ref{CSIASongguk2}, and \ref{CSIASongguk3} show the results of the organic geochemical analyses. Among the 27 samples, 18 were analyzable. Nine samples were omitted due to contamination and the low concentration of lipids.

Generally, the most frequently observed compounds in archaeological lipid residues are palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids (Evershed 2008a). The Songguk-Ri site was not an exception; and C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids were the only organic compounds that were detected from all the analyzable 18 samples. Along with C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids, I was able to identify both major short- and long-chain (un)saturated fatty acids including C13:0, C14:0, C15:0, C15:1, C16:1, C17:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, and C24:1.

\newpage \begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}lp{5cm}llp{4cm}@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Compound detected & C16:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & C18:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & Interpretation via CSIA \ \midrule \endhead SON001 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C20:1, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0 & -28.1 & -24.9 & Possibly Pork adipose \ SON002 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C20:0, C20:1, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0 & -27.1 & -25.7 & Pork adipose \ SON003 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:1, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -27.1 & -27.6 & Fresh water and/or C3 plant oil \ SON004 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:1, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -26.6 & -25.9 & Pork adipose \ SON005 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:1, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -28.7 & -31.6 & Ruminant adipose \ SON006 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C20:1, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -27.6 & -26.9 & Pork adipose \ SON012 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C20:0, C20:1, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -28.1 & -27.7 & C3 plant oil \ SON013 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:1, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -26.7 & -26.4 & Pork adipose \ SON014 & C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -27.9 & -29 & Ruminant adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ SON016 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -27.7 & -24.7 & Possibly Pork adipose \ SON017 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -27.3 & -28.4 & Fresh water and/or C3 plant oil \ SON018 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0, C24:1 & -23.2 & -23.9 & Marine \ SON020 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C15:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C19:0, C19:1, C20:0, C20:1, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1 & -27.3 & -28.6 & Fresh water and/or C3 plant oil \ SON022 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:2, C20:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -28.9 & -29.3 & Ruminant adipose \ SON024 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, C24:1, phytanic acid & -27.5 & -28 & Fresh water and/or C3 plant oil \ SON025 & C14:0, C14:1, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C20:2, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -30.1 & -28.4 & Equine adipose \ SON026 & C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C22:0, C22:1, C24:1 & -30 & -28.9 & Equine adipose \ SON027 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:2, C22:1, C24:1 & -28.5 & -28.1 & Terrestrial non-ruminant and/or C3 plant oil \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of the organic geochemical analysis by GC-MS and GC-C-IRMS of the samples from the Songguk-Ri site, and their interpretations} \label{tab:CSIA_SG} \end{longtable}

The geographical conditions of the Songguk-Ri site are not drastically different from the Kimpo-Yangchon and Sosa-Dong sites. Not too far away from the Songguk-Ri site is the Geum River, which is about 7 kilometers southwest of it. Therefore, aquatic resources might have had a chance to contribute to the diet of its dwellers. In order to fully understand whether these ancient farmers relied on aquatic resources, it is important to examine carefully the presence of aquatic biomarkers such as phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid), 4,8,12-TMTD (4,8,12-trimethyltridecanoic acid) and thermally produced long-chain $\omega$-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids [cf. @Craig2011; @Evershed2008a]. Beside detecting phytanic acid from one sample (SON024), no other aquatic biomarkers were identified.

The results of the isotope analyses of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids show their characteristic diet. In the Songguk-Ri site, the story is a bit different from the former two cases. The results (Figure \ref{CSIASongguk}; \ref{CSIASongguk2}; \ref{CSIASongguk3}) indicate that they consumed several food stuffs including pork, C~3~ plants, aquatic resources (mostly fresh water) and ruminants. The most interesting result is that almost none of the samples indicated the presence of marine resources. This is probably because the distance between the site and the shore nearest to it is much farther than in case of the Kimpo-Yangchon and Sosa-Dong sites (Figure \ref{site_locations_zoomin}). Therefore, people relied much more on freshwater resources than on the marine ones (Figure \ref{CSIASongguk3}). Also, the result of CSIA on SON024 agreed with that of GC-MS analysis, indicating the pot in question was used for processing freshwater resources. Pork was still quite a popular foodstuff. Two samples indicated the presence of equine adipose. In Korea, the earliest confirmed evidence of domesticated horse came from several Late Mumun sites dated as early as 2300 BP [@Lee2011b; @Lee2009]. Considering that the Songguk-Ri site is classified into the Middle/Late Mumun period, it is quite possible that domesticated/wild horses would have contributed to its dwellers' diet. As stated above, during the 14th excavation of the Songguk-Ri site, over several thousands of carbonized grains were found. The dominant grains were foxtail millet and rice. Though I was able to show the presence of the C~3~ plant oil which could have originated from rice, none of the samples indicated the presence of C~4~ plant oil (^13^C values in the range of -17 to -12.5 $\permil$; cf. Chapter four).

\newpage \section{Eupha-Ri}

Eupha-Ri is an Iron Age archaeological site in Huengseong city, Gangwon province, South Korea (Figure \ref{site_locations_zoomin}). The Huengseong city council had had a plan to build a cultural/athletic park; and the archaeological investigation had been performed beforehand by the Yonsei University Wonju Museum [@Wang2013]. The excavation was held from May 15th, 2009 to December 11th, 2011. The site contains various archaeological phenomena such as house pits, pit features and jar burials which represent different time periods from the Iron Age to the historical Joseon Dynasty (AD 1392 - 1897). The total site area is 23,840 square meters. Its main archaeological features belong to the Iron Age; and this thesis is focusing on this time period.

36 house pits, 24 pit features, and four jar burials were excavated and classified into the Iron Age. Based on AMS radio carbon dating applied to the four charcoal samples collected from the house pits, the main occupation period was assumed to be around 1,850 - 1,640 BP [@Wang2013, Table \ref{tab:radiocarbon_EP}, cf. Figure \ref{ep_radio}; \ref{Radiocarbon_dates}]. The house pits are either "L$\ddot{u}$" or "T$\bar{u}$" shape with rounded corners, and contain interior features such as hearth and post holes (Figure \ref{EUPhouse}). This description of their shape is based on the Chinese characters. The Iron age style hardened un-patterned pottery and that which was made by the beating method were excavated. Other ceramic artifacts were also found, including a mold for iron casting, a net sinker and spindle whorls (Figure \ref{EUPartifact}b). As for the Iron ware, axes, daggers and arrowheads were found (Figure \ref{EUPartifact}b).

Overall, the Eupha-Ri site shows the typical characteristics of the Iron Age sites in the central part of the Korean Peninsula.

\begin{table}[htbp] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule House pit No. & Cultural historical period & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) & Calendar date \ \midrule No. 1 & Iron Age & 1850±20 & AD 188 \ No. 15 & Iron Age & 1780±20 & AD 228 \ No. 15 & Iron Age & 1780±20 & AD 217 \ No. 29 & Iron Age & 1640±20 & AD 336 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The results of AMS radiocarbon dating of the Eupha-Ri site} \label{tab:radiocarbon_EP} \end{table}

\subsection{Sampling}

\subsubsection{Organic geochemical analysis}

Though numerous complete pots were excavated (Figure \ref{EUPartifact}a), not many potsherds were found. Since in the archaeological investigation, the priority is given to preserving pots in their original form and since it is not common to find lots of complete ones, I was not allowed to take parts from complete ones for the analyses. Under these limited conditions, the samples were collected among the available potsherds found at house pits.

Thus, a total of 25 samples were collected from eight house pits (Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_EP}, Figure \ref{eup_map}). Though I tried to collect as many samples as I could in the given situation, I have to confess that the eight house pits might not fully represent the entire aspect of the site. If there are available radiocarbon dates from the house pits where the samples were collected, I have indicated them in Table \ref{tab:sampling_OG_EP}.

\begin{table}[htbp] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & House pit No. & Part & C14 date (uncalibrated years BP) \ \midrule EUP001 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP002 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP003 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP004 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP005 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP006 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP007 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP008 & No. 15 & Bottom & 1780±20 \ EUP009 & No. 15 & Bottom & 1780±20 \ EUP010 & No. 15 & Bottom & 1780±20 \ EUP011 & No. 15 & Bottom & 1780±20 \ EUP012 & No. 33 & Rim & \ EUP013 & No. 32 & Body & \ EUP014 & No. 32 & Body & \ EUP015 & No. 32 & Body & \ EUP016 & No. 29 & Body (beating method) & 1640±20 \ EUP017 & No. 15 & Body & 1780±20 \ EUP018 & No. 15 & Rim & 1780±20 \ EUP019 & No. 7.8.9 disturbed & Rim & \ EUP020 & No. 7.8.9 disturbed & Rim & \ EUP021 & No. 12 & Rim (beating method) & \ EUP022 & No. 7.8.9 disturbed & Rim (beating method) & \ EUP030 & No. 33 & Body & \ EUP031 & No. 32 & Body & \ EUP032 & No. 29 & Body & 1640±20 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The samples collected from the Eupha-Ri site for the organic geochemical analysis in this thesis} \label{tab:sampling_OG_EP} \end{table}

\subsubsection{Luminescence dating}

For the luminescence dating three samples were collected. Among the three samples, one was collected from the house pit that had been dated by the radiocarbon dating, and the other two from those which had not been dated (Table \ref{tab:sampling_LM_EP}, Figure \ref{eup_map}).

\begin{table}[htbp] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}llll@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Location/house pit No. & Part & Depth (m) \ \midrule U3039 & No. 33 & Body & 0.3 \ U3040 & No. 32 & Body & 0.3 \ U3041 & No. 29 & Body & 0.3 \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The samples collected from the Eupha-Ri site for the luminescence dating in this thesis} \label{tab:sampling_LM_EP} \end{table}

\subsection{Organic geochemical results}

Table \ref{tab:CSIA_EP}, Figure \ref{CSIAEUP}, \ref{CSIAEUP2} and, \ref{CSIAEUP3} show the results of the organic geochemical analyses. Among the 25 samples, only eight were analyzable. 17 samples were omitted mostly due to the low concentration of lipids. Like the results in case of the former three sites, palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) fatty acids were detected from all the analyzed eight samples. Along with C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids, I was able to identify both major short- and long-chain (un)saturated fatty acids such as C14:0, C15:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:2, C19, C20:0, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0 and C24:0. The overall lipid concentration of the samples from the Eupha-Ri site was quite low; and the number of the identified fatty acids was much smaller than those at the former three sites.

This was quite striking, because the Eupha-Ri site is almost 1000 years younger than the other sites (such as Kimpo-Yangchon or Sosa-Dong), and I thought lipids in younger sites had more chances to survive against the post-depositional processes than in older ones. The overall low concentration of lipids at the Eupha-Ri site is probably due to the hard fabric of the Iron Age potteries. The surface treatments and a high firing temperature brought into play in manufacturing the Iron Age ceramic vessels would have generated smaller pores, which would have limited the concentration of lipids [cf. @Correa-Ascencio2014]. Otherwise, more lipids could have been absorbed into the vessels. Though Correa-Ascencio and Evershed [-@Correa-Ascencio2014] showed the effectiveness of the methanolic acid extraction on hard and burnished pots, the lipid concentration of the Eupha-Ri site's potsherds was still low, compared with that which had been observed at more porous Mumun potteries.

\begin{longtable}[htbp]{@{}lp{5cm}llp{4cm}@{}} \toprule Sample No. & Compound detected & C16:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & C18:0 ($\delta$\textsuperscript{13}C) & Interpretation via CSIA \ \midrule \endhead EUP005 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:0, C18:2, C19:0, C20:0, C21:0, C22:0, C22:1, C23:0, C24:0, phytanic acid & -26.2 & -29.4 & Aquatic resources \ EUP019 & C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C22:1, C24:0 & -29.2 & -30.1 & Ruminant adipose \ EUP020 & C16:0, C18:0, C18:2 & -32.4 & -31.4 & Not identifiable \ EUP021 & C16:0, C18:0, C18:2 & -30.1 & -30.4 & Ruminant adipose and/or Equine adipose \ EUP022 & C16:0, C18:0 & -32.7 & -30.5 & Not identifiable \ EUP030 & C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:2 & -27.3 & -29.7 & Ruminant adipose and/or C3 plant oil \ EUP031 & C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0 & -26.8 & -26.6 & Pork adipose and/or Fresh water resources \ EUP032 & C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:2 & -27 & -28.2 & Ruminant adipose and/or Fresh water resources and/or C3 plant oil \ \bottomrule \caption{The results of the organic geochemical analyses by GC-MS and GC-C-IRMS of the samples from the Eupha-Ri site, and their interpretations} \label{tab:CSIA_EP} \end{longtable}

Geographically, the Eupha-Ri site is just near the Seom River. Therefore, aquatic resources, especially fresh water ones, might have had a chance of having contributed to its dwellers' diet. In order to fully understand whether they relied heavily on aquatic resources or not, it is important to carefully examine the presence of aquatic biomarkers such as phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid), 4,8,12-TMTD (4,8,12-trimethyltridecanoic acid), and thermally produced long-chain $\omega$-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids [cf. @Craig2011; @Evershed2008a]. Among the eight samples, one sample showed the presence of phytanic acid (EUP005), indicating the possibility that those pots would have been used for processing aquatic resources.

In the Eupha-Ri site, the diet pattern is quite different from that of the former three cases. The isotope analyses of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids shows its interesting aspect. The results of the analyses (Figure \ref{CSIAEUP}; \ref{CSIAEUP2}; \ref{CSIAEUP3}) indicate that the site's ancient dwellers mainly consumed several food stuffs such as ruminants, C~3~ plants and aquatic resources (fresh water). The most interesting result is that only one sample indicated the presence of pork adipose. Also, almost all samples except two 'not identifiable' ones showed the presence of ruminant adipose. This diet pattern focused on ruminants in the Iron Age is quite different from that of the Mumun period in which pork is dominant. Also, one sample showed the possibility of presence of equine adipose. During the excavation of the Eupha-Ri site, two molars that belong to a horse and a cattle were found. In this regard, it is quite possible that people consumed these animals. Two samples showed the possibility of presence of C~3~ plant oil.

\newpage \subsection{Luminescence dating results}

The samples were dated using TL, OSL and IRSL at the luminescence dating lab, University of Washington.

Table \ref{tab:LM_EP} shows the results of the luminescence dating. The OSL signal for UW3039 was most likely from quartz. The IRSL signal was weak and the OSL b-value was obviously in the range of quartz. The TL age was generally older but only by about 120 years. The OSL age gave the best estimate for the sample UW3039. The ages for OSL, IRSL, and TL were all in agreement for the sample UW3040 (the fading was not significant). The ages for OSL and IRSL were in agreement for the sample UW3041. The TL age was younger probably due to the very high fading rate. U3039 and U3041 corresponded to the published four AMS radiocarbon dates (Table 5.14). The date presumed by U3041 indicates that the site was occupied by the Iron Age people slightly longer than the radiocarbon dates suggest. The result of U3040 did not match with both the archaeological features of the site and the radiocarbon dates.

\begin{table}[h] \centering \begin{tabular}{@{}p{1cm}p{1cm}p{1.5cm}p{1.75cm}lllp{1.75cm}@{}} \toprule Lab. No & Depth (m) & Water Content (\%) & Dose rate* (Gy/ka) & TL (De) & OSL (De) & IRSL (De) & Age \ \midrule U3039 & 0.3 & 14 & 6.378±0.429 & 14.67±1.07 & 8.13±0.264 & 14.652±2.537 & 160±120 AD (OSL) \ U3040 & 0.3 & 13.4 & 5.336±0.562 & 12.3±3.1 & 8.974±0.16 & 10.04±0.214 & 260±110 BC \ U3041 & 0.3 & 12.6 & 6.596±0.300 & 7.916±0.598 & 8.578±0.186 & 8.534±0.326 & 530±60 AD \ \bottomrule \end{tabular} \caption{The results of the luminescence dating of the potsherd samples from the Eupha-Ri site. The overall low water content of the samples shows the less porous nature of the Iron Age pottery.} \label{tab:LM_EP} \end{table}

\section{Summary}

In this chapter, the focus was given to the results of the organic geochemical analyses and luminescence dating from four different habitation sites in the central part of the Korean Peninsula. Firstly, the overall archaeological phenomena of the four sites were described in detail. Then, I elucidated the sampling strategies, methods, and the results of the organic geochemical analyses and luminescence dating for the each of the sites one by one.

SeungkiKwak/Kwak_S_PhD_thesis documentation built on May 9, 2019, 1:22 p.m.