In nhejazi/haldensify: Highly Adaptive Lasso Conditional Density Estimation
Background and motivation
In causal inference problems, both classical estimators (e.g., inverse
probability weighting) and doubly robust estimators (e.g., one-step estimation,
targeted minimum loss estimation) require estimation of the propensity score, a
nuisance parameter corresponding to the treatment mechanism. While treatments of
interest may often be continuous-valued, most approaches opt to discretize the
treatment so as to estimate effects based on binary (or categorical) treatment.
Such simplifications are often motivated by convenience rather than science --
to avoid estimation of the generalized propensity score
[@hirano2004propensity; @imai2004causal], the covariate-conditional treatment
density. The haldensify package introduces a flexible approach for estimating
such conditional density functions, using the highly adaptive lasso (HAL), a
nonparametric estimator that has been shown to exhibit desirable
rate-convergence properties.
Consider data generated by typical cohort sampling $O = (W, A, Y)$, where $W$ is
a vector of baseline covariates, $A$ is a continuous (or ordinal) treatment, and
$Y$ is an outcome of interest. Estimation of the generalized propensity score
$g_{0,A}$ corresponds to estimating the conditional density of $A$ given $W =
w$. A simple strategy for estimating this nuisance function is to assume a
parametric working model and use parametric regression to generate suitable
density estimates. For example, one could operate under the working assumption
that $A$ given $W$ follows a Gaussian distribution with homoscedastic variance
and mean $\sum_{j=1}^p \beta_j \phi_j(W)$, where $\phi = (\phi_j : j)$ are
user-selected basis functions and $\beta = (\beta_j : j)$ are unknown regression
parameters. In this case, a density estimate would be generated by fitting a
linear regression of $A$ on $\phi(W)$ to estimate the conditional mean of $A$
given $W$, paired with maximum likelihood estimation of the variance of $A$.
Then, the estimated conditional density would be given by the density of a
Gaussian distribution evaluated at these estimates. Unfortunately, most such
approaches do not allow for flexible modeling of $g_{0,A}$. This motivated our
development of a novel and flexible procedure for constructing conditional
density estimators $g_{n,A}(a \mid w)$ of $A$ given $W = w$ (possibly subject to
observation-level weights).
Conditional density estimation by pooled hazards regression
As consistent estimation of the generalized propensity score is an integral part
of constructing estimators of the causal effects of continuous treatments, our
conditional density estimator, built around the HAL regression function, may be
quite useful in flexibly constructing such estimates. We note that proposals for
the data adaptive estimation of such quantities are sparse in the literature
(e.g., @zhu2015boosting). Notably, @diaz2011super gave a proposal for
constructing a semiparametric estimator of such a target quantity based on
exploiting the relationship between the hazard and density functions. Our
proposal builds upon theirs in several key ways:
- we adjust their algorithm so as to incorporate sample-level weights,
necessary for making use of sample-level weights (e.g., inverse probability
of censoring weighting); and
- we replace their use of an arbitrary classification model with the HAL
regression function.
While our first modification is general and may be applied to the estimation
strategy of @diaz2011super, our latter contribution requires adjusting the
penalization aspect of HAL regression so as to respect the use of a loss
function appropriate for density estimation on the hazard scale.
To build an estimator of a conditional density, @diaz2011super considered
discretizing the observed $a \in A$ based on a number of bins $T$ and a binning
procedure (e.g., including the same number of points in each bin or forcing bins
to be of the same length). We note that the choice of the tuning parameter $T$
corresponds roughly to the choice of bandwidth in classical kernel density
estimation; this will be made clear upon further examination of the proposed
algorithm. The data ${A, W}$ are reformatted such that the hazard of an
observed value $a \in A$ falling in a given bin may be evaluated via standard
classification techniques. In fact, this proposal may be viewed as a
re-formulation of the classification problem into a corresponding set of hazard
regressions:
\begin{align}
\mathbb{P} (a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W) =& \mathbb{P} (a \in
[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid A \geq \alpha_{t-1}, W) \times \ &
\prod_{j = 1}^{t -1} {1 - \mathbb{P} (a \in [\alpha_{j-1}, \alpha_j)
\mid A \geq \alpha_{j-1}, W) },
\end{align}
where the probability that a value of $a \in A$ falls in a bin $[\alpha_{t-1},
\alpha_t)$ may be directly estimated from a standard classification model. The
likelihood of this model may be re-expressed in terms of the likelihood of
a binary variable in a data set expressed through a repeated measures structure.
Specifically, this re-formatting procedure is carried out by creating a data set
in which any given observation $A_i$ appears (repeatedly) for as many intervals
$[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)$ that there are prior to the interval to which the
observed $a$ belongs. A new binary outcome variable, indicating $A_i \in
[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)$, is recorded as part of this new data structure. With
the re-formatted data, a pooled hazard regression, spanning the support of $A$
is then executed. Finally, the conditional density estimator
\begin{equation}
g_{n, \alpha}(a \mid W) = \frac{\mathbb{P}(a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)
\mid W)}{(\alpha_t - \alpha_{t-1})},
\end{equation}
for $\alpha_{t-1} \leq a \le \alpha_t$, may be constructed. As part of this
procedure, the hazard estimates are mapped to density estimates through
rescaling of the estimates by the bin size ($\alpha_t - \alpha_{t-1}$).
In its original proposal, a key element of this procedure was the use of any
arbitrary classification procedure for estimating $\mathbb{P}(a \in
[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W)$, facilitating the incorporation of flexible,
data adaptive estimators. We alter this proposal in two ways,
- replacing the arbitrary estimator of $\mathbb{P}(a \in [\alpha_{t-1},
\alpha_t) \mid W)$ with HAL regression, and
- accommodating the use of sample-level weights, making it possible for the
resultant conditional density estimator to achieve a convergence rate with
respect to a loss-based dissimilarity of $\approx n^{-1/3}$ under
assumptions.
Our procedure alters the HAL regression function to use a loss function tailored
for estimation of the hazard, invoking $\ell_1$-penalization in a manner
consistent with this loss.
Example: Conditional density estimation
First, let's load a few required packages and set a seed for our example.
library(haldensify)
library(data.table)
library(ggplot2)
set.seed(75681)
Next, we'll generate a simple simulated dataset. The function
make_example_data, defined below, generates a baseline covariate $W$ and a
continuous treatment $A$, whose mean is a function of $W$.
make_example_data <- function(n_obs) {
W <- runif(n_obs, -4, 4)
A <- rnorm(n_obs, mean = W, sd = 0.25)
dat <- as.data.table(list(A = A, W = W))
return(dat)
}
Now, let's simulate our data and take a quick look at it:
# number of observations in our simulated dataset
n_obs <- 200
(example_data <- make_example_data(n_obs))
Next, we'll fit our pooled hazards conditional density estimator via the
haldensify wrapper function. Based on underlying theory and simulation
experiments, we recommend setting a relatively large number of bins and using a
binning strategy that accommodates creating such a large number of bins.
haldensify_fit <- haldensify(
A = example_data$A,
W = example_data$W,
n_bins = c(5, 10),
grid_type = "equal_range",
lambda_seq = exp(seq(-0.1, -10, length = 300)),
# the following are passed to hal9001::fit_hal() internally
max_degree = 2,
reduce_basis = 1 / sqrt(n_obs)
)
Having constructed the conditional density estimator, we can examine the
empirical risk over the grid of choices of the $L_1$ regularization parameter
$\lambda$. To do this, we can simply call the available plot method, which
uses the cross-validated conditional density fits in the cv_tuning_results
slot of the haldensify object. For example,
p_risk <- plot(haldensify_fit)
p_risk
Finally, we can predict the conditional density over the grid of observed values
$A$ across different elements of the support $W$. We do this using the predict
method of haldensify and plot the results below.
# predictions to recover conditional density of A|W
new_a <- seq(-4, 4, by = 0.05)
new_dat <- as.data.table(list(
a = new_a,
w_neg = rep(-2, length(new_a)),
w_zero = rep(0, length(new_a)),
w_pos = rep(2, length(new_a))
))
new_dat[, pred_w_neg := predict(haldensify_fit,
new_A = new_dat$a,
new_W = new_dat$w_neg
)]
new_dat[, pred_w_zero := predict(haldensify_fit,
new_A = new_dat$a,
new_W = new_dat$w_zero
)]
new_dat[, pred_w_pos := predict(haldensify_fit,
new_A = new_dat$a,
new_W = new_dat$w_pos
)]
# visualize results
dens_dat <- melt(new_dat,
id = c("a"),
measure.vars = c("pred_w_pos", "pred_w_zero", "pred_w_neg")
)
p_dens <- ggplot(dens_dat, aes(x = a, y = value, colour = variable)) +
geom_point() +
geom_line() +
stat_function(
fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = -2, sd = 0.25),
colour = "blue", linetype = "dashed"
) +
stat_function(
fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = 0, sd = 0.25),
colour = "darkgreen", linetype = "dashed"
) +
stat_function(
fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = 2, sd = 0.25),
colour = "red", linetype = "dashed"
) +
labs(
x = "Observed value of W",
y = "Estimated conditional density",
title = "Conditional density estimates g(A|W)"
) +
theme_bw() +
theme(legend.position = "none")
p_dens
In the above example, we generate synthetic data along a grid of $A$ and three
values of $W$ ($W \in {-2, 0, +2}$), representing distinct groups/strata with
respect to the covariate $W$. Using this data, we use the trained haldensify
model to predict the density of $A$, conditional on the paired value of $W$,
yielding estimates of the conditional density for each of these three
hypothetical strata of $W$. The resultant figure depicts the estimated
conditional density as colored points (blue for $W = -2$, green for $W = 0$, and
red for $W = +2$), and the theoretical density for each group as smooth curves
(using ggplot2's stat_function()). For each group, the differences between
the estimated conditional densities and the theoretical densities can be taken
as indicative of the quality of the haldensify estimator in this example.
Overall, the haldensify estimator appears to recover the underlying density of
$A$ best for the group $W = 0$, with slightly degraded performance for $W = -2$,
which degrades further for $W = +2$. The haldensify conditional density
estimator has been used to estimate the generalized propensity score in
applications of the methodology described in @hejazi2020efficient.
Nonparametric inverse probability weighted estimation
As mentioned above, the generalized propensity score is a critical ingredient
in evaluating causal effects for continuous treatments. A popular framework
for defining and evaluating such causal effects is that of modified treatment
policies [@haneuse2013estimation; @diaz2018stochastic; @hejazi2022efficient],
which define interventions that shift (or modify) the treatment. For example,
in a setting with a continuous treatment $A$, in which we additionally collect
baseline covariates $W$ and an outcome measurement $Y$ (so that the data on a
given unit is $O = (W, A, Y)$), we could consider an intervention that sets the
value of $A$ via $d(A,W; \delta) = A + \delta(W)$, for a user-defined function
$d(A,W;\delta)$ indexed by a function (or scalar) $\delta$. This intervention
regime is a simple example of a modified treatment policy (MTP); it can be
thought of mapping the observed $A$ to a counterfactual $A_{\delta}$ that is
itself an additive shift of the natural value of $A$. The counterfactual mean of
such an intervention would be expressed $\mathbb{E}[Y(A_{\delta})]$, where
$Y(A_{\delta})$ is the potential outcome that would be observed had the
treatment taken the value $A_{\delta}$. Both @haneuse2013estimation and
@diaz2018stochastic proposed substitution, inverse probability weighted (IPW),
and doubly robust estimators of a statistical functional $\psi$ that identifies
this counterfactual mean under standard assumptions. Doubly robust estimators of
$\psi$ are implemented in the txshift R package [@hejazi2020txshift-joss;
@hejazi2022txshift-rpkg]; such estimation frameworks are usually necessary in
order to take advantage of flexible estimators of nuisance parameters.
Despite the popularity of doubly robust estimation procedures, IPW estimators
can be modified to accommodate data adaptive estimation of the (generalized)
propensity score. Such nonparametric IPW estimators, based on HAL, have been
described by @ertefaie2020nonparametric in the context of binary treatments,
and by @hejazi2022efficient for continuous treatments. The IPW estimator of
$\psi$ is $\psi_{n,\text{IPW}} = {\tilde{g}{n,A}(A \mid W) / g{n,A}(A \mid
W)} Y$, where $g_{n,A}$ is an estimator of the generalized propensity score
(e.g., as produced by haldensify()) and $\tilde{g}{n,A}$ is this quantity
evaluated at the post-intervention value of the treatment $A{\delta}$. Usually,
$g_{n,A}$ must be estimated via parametric modeling strategies in order for
$\psi_{n,\text{IPW}}$ to achieve desirable asymptotic properties (unbiasedness,
efficiency); however, when $g_{n,A}$ is estimated flexibly, sieve estimation
strategies (undersmoothing) may be used to select an estimator $g_{n,A}$, from
among an appropriate class, that allows for optimal estimation of $\psi$. This
issue arises in part because strategies for optimal selection of $g_{n,A}$
(e.g., cross-validation) optimize for estimation of the conditional density,
ignoring the fact that it is only a nuisance parameter in the process of IPW
estimation. When haldensify() is used for this purpose, a family of
conditional density estimators $g_{n,A,\lambda}$, indexed by the $\ell_1$
regularization term $\lambda$, are generated, with cross-validation used to
select an optimal estimator from among this trajectory in $\lambda$. We saw this
above when we visualized the empirical risk profile of $g_{n,A}$. While
empirical risk minimization based on the framework of cross-validated loss-based
estimation is appropriate for optimally estimating the generalized propensity
score, the selected estimator will fail to yield an IPW estimator with desirable
asymptotic properties; undersmoothing must be used to select a more appropriate
estimator. The haldensify package implements nonparametric IPW estimators that
incorporate undersmoothing in the ipw_shift() function, the use of which we
demonstrate below.
Example: Nonparametric IPW estimation
To begin, we set up a new data-generating process and simulate data for $n =
200$ units from it. We will aim to estimate the counterfactual mean of $Y$ under
an MTP that shifts $A$ by $\delta = 2$.
# set up data-generating process
make_example_data <- function(n_obs) {
W <- runif(n_obs, 1, 4)
A <- rpois(n_obs, 2 * W + 1)
Y <- rbinom(n_obs, 1, plogis(2 - A + W + 3))
dat <- as.data.table(list(Y = Y, A = A, W = W))
return(dat)
}
# generate data and take a look
(dat_obs <- make_example_data(n_obs = 200))
With this dataset, we can now simply call the ipw_shift() function, providing
arguments that specify the causal effect of interest (delta = 2) and tuning
parameters for estimating the generalized propensity score (lambda_seq,
cv_folds, n_bins). The selector_type argument specifies the type of
undersmoothing to be used to select an appropriate IPW estimator (from among a
sequence in $\lambda$); setting the option selector_type = "all" simply
returns IPW estimators for each of the selectors implemented. For a formal
description of the selectors and numerical experiments examining their
performance, see @hejazi2022efficient.
est_ipw <- ipw_shift(
W = dat_obs$W, A = dat_obs$A, Y = dat_obs$Y,
delta = 2,
cv_folds = 2L,
n_bins = 5L,
bin_type = "equal_range",
selector_type = "all",
lambda_seq = exp(seq(-1, -10, length = 500L)),
# arguments passed to hal9001::fit_hal()
max_degree = 2,
reduce_basis = 1 / sqrt(n_obs)
)
confint(est_ipw)
The confint() method used above simply creates confidence intervals (95%, by
default) for each of the IPW estimates returned. Examining the output, we can
see that the IPW estimator based on cross-validation ("gcv") differs from that
based on minimization of an important criterion from semiparametric efficiency
theory ("dcar_min"). These estimators have different asymptotic properties,
with the latter guaranteed to solve an estimating function required for the
characterization of asymptotically efficient estimators.
References
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Background and motivation
In causal inference problems, both classical estimators (e.g., inverse
probability weighting) and doubly robust estimators (e.g., one-step estimation,
targeted minimum loss estimation) require estimation of the propensity score, a
nuisance parameter corresponding to the treatment mechanism. While treatments of
interest may often be continuous-valued, most approaches opt to discretize the
treatment so as to estimate effects based on binary (or categorical) treatment.
Such simplifications are often motivated by convenience rather than science --
to avoid estimation of the generalized propensity score
[@hirano2004propensity; @imai2004causal], the covariate-conditional treatment
density. The haldensify package introduces a flexible approach for estimating
such conditional density functions, using the highly adaptive lasso (HAL), a
nonparametric estimator that has been shown to exhibit desirable
rate-convergence properties.
Consider data generated by typical cohort sampling $O = (W, A, Y)$, where $W$ is a vector of baseline covariates, $A$ is a continuous (or ordinal) treatment, and $Y$ is an outcome of interest. Estimation of the generalized propensity score $g_{0,A}$ corresponds to estimating the conditional density of $A$ given $W = w$. A simple strategy for estimating this nuisance function is to assume a parametric working model and use parametric regression to generate suitable density estimates. For example, one could operate under the working assumption that $A$ given $W$ follows a Gaussian distribution with homoscedastic variance and mean $\sum_{j=1}^p \beta_j \phi_j(W)$, where $\phi = (\phi_j : j)$ are user-selected basis functions and $\beta = (\beta_j : j)$ are unknown regression parameters. In this case, a density estimate would be generated by fitting a linear regression of $A$ on $\phi(W)$ to estimate the conditional mean of $A$ given $W$, paired with maximum likelihood estimation of the variance of $A$. Then, the estimated conditional density would be given by the density of a Gaussian distribution evaluated at these estimates. Unfortunately, most such approaches do not allow for flexible modeling of $g_{0,A}$. This motivated our development of a novel and flexible procedure for constructing conditional density estimators $g_{n,A}(a \mid w)$ of $A$ given $W = w$ (possibly subject to observation-level weights).
Conditional density estimation by pooled hazards regression
As consistent estimation of the generalized propensity score is an integral part of constructing estimators of the causal effects of continuous treatments, our conditional density estimator, built around the HAL regression function, may be quite useful in flexibly constructing such estimates. We note that proposals for the data adaptive estimation of such quantities are sparse in the literature (e.g., @zhu2015boosting). Notably, @diaz2011super gave a proposal for constructing a semiparametric estimator of such a target quantity based on exploiting the relationship between the hazard and density functions. Our proposal builds upon theirs in several key ways:
- we adjust their algorithm so as to incorporate sample-level weights, necessary for making use of sample-level weights (e.g., inverse probability of censoring weighting); and
- we replace their use of an arbitrary classification model with the HAL regression function.
While our first modification is general and may be applied to the estimation strategy of @diaz2011super, our latter contribution requires adjusting the penalization aspect of HAL regression so as to respect the use of a loss function appropriate for density estimation on the hazard scale.
To build an estimator of a conditional density, @diaz2011super considered discretizing the observed $a \in A$ based on a number of bins $T$ and a binning procedure (e.g., including the same number of points in each bin or forcing bins to be of the same length). We note that the choice of the tuning parameter $T$ corresponds roughly to the choice of bandwidth in classical kernel density estimation; this will be made clear upon further examination of the proposed algorithm. The data ${A, W}$ are reformatted such that the hazard of an observed value $a \in A$ falling in a given bin may be evaluated via standard classification techniques. In fact, this proposal may be viewed as a re-formulation of the classification problem into a corresponding set of hazard regressions: \begin{align} \mathbb{P} (a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W) =& \mathbb{P} (a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid A \geq \alpha_{t-1}, W) \times \ & \prod_{j = 1}^{t -1} {1 - \mathbb{P} (a \in [\alpha_{j-1}, \alpha_j) \mid A \geq \alpha_{j-1}, W) }, \end{align} where the probability that a value of $a \in A$ falls in a bin $[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)$ may be directly estimated from a standard classification model. The likelihood of this model may be re-expressed in terms of the likelihood of a binary variable in a data set expressed through a repeated measures structure. Specifically, this re-formatting procedure is carried out by creating a data set in which any given observation $A_i$ appears (repeatedly) for as many intervals $[\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)$ that there are prior to the interval to which the observed $a$ belongs. A new binary outcome variable, indicating $A_i \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t)$, is recorded as part of this new data structure. With the re-formatted data, a pooled hazard regression, spanning the support of $A$ is then executed. Finally, the conditional density estimator \begin{equation} g_{n, \alpha}(a \mid W) = \frac{\mathbb{P}(a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W)}{(\alpha_t - \alpha_{t-1})}, \end{equation} for $\alpha_{t-1} \leq a \le \alpha_t$, may be constructed. As part of this procedure, the hazard estimates are mapped to density estimates through rescaling of the estimates by the bin size ($\alpha_t - \alpha_{t-1}$).
In its original proposal, a key element of this procedure was the use of any arbitrary classification procedure for estimating $\mathbb{P}(a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W)$, facilitating the incorporation of flexible, data adaptive estimators. We alter this proposal in two ways,
- replacing the arbitrary estimator of $\mathbb{P}(a \in [\alpha_{t-1}, \alpha_t) \mid W)$ with HAL regression, and
- accommodating the use of sample-level weights, making it possible for the resultant conditional density estimator to achieve a convergence rate with respect to a loss-based dissimilarity of $\approx n^{-1/3}$ under assumptions.
Our procedure alters the HAL regression function to use a loss function tailored for estimation of the hazard, invoking $\ell_1$-penalization in a manner consistent with this loss.
Example: Conditional density estimation
First, let's load a few required packages and set a seed for our example.
library(haldensify) library(data.table) library(ggplot2) set.seed(75681)
Next, we'll generate a simple simulated dataset. The function
make_example_data, defined below, generates a baseline covariate $W$ and a
continuous treatment $A$, whose mean is a function of $W$.
make_example_data <- function(n_obs) { W <- runif(n_obs, -4, 4) A <- rnorm(n_obs, mean = W, sd = 0.25) dat <- as.data.table(list(A = A, W = W)) return(dat) }
Now, let's simulate our data and take a quick look at it:
# number of observations in our simulated dataset n_obs <- 200 (example_data <- make_example_data(n_obs))
Next, we'll fit our pooled hazards conditional density estimator via the
haldensify wrapper function. Based on underlying theory and simulation
experiments, we recommend setting a relatively large number of bins and using a
binning strategy that accommodates creating such a large number of bins.
haldensify_fit <- haldensify( A = example_data$A, W = example_data$W, n_bins = c(5, 10), grid_type = "equal_range", lambda_seq = exp(seq(-0.1, -10, length = 300)), # the following are passed to hal9001::fit_hal() internally max_degree = 2, reduce_basis = 1 / sqrt(n_obs) )
Having constructed the conditional density estimator, we can examine the
empirical risk over the grid of choices of the $L_1$ regularization parameter
$\lambda$. To do this, we can simply call the available plot method, which
uses the cross-validated conditional density fits in the cv_tuning_results
slot of the haldensify object. For example,
p_risk <- plot(haldensify_fit) p_risk
Finally, we can predict the conditional density over the grid of observed values
$A$ across different elements of the support $W$. We do this using the predict
method of haldensify and plot the results below.
# predictions to recover conditional density of A|W new_a <- seq(-4, 4, by = 0.05) new_dat <- as.data.table(list( a = new_a, w_neg = rep(-2, length(new_a)), w_zero = rep(0, length(new_a)), w_pos = rep(2, length(new_a)) )) new_dat[, pred_w_neg := predict(haldensify_fit, new_A = new_dat$a, new_W = new_dat$w_neg )] new_dat[, pred_w_zero := predict(haldensify_fit, new_A = new_dat$a, new_W = new_dat$w_zero )] new_dat[, pred_w_pos := predict(haldensify_fit, new_A = new_dat$a, new_W = new_dat$w_pos )] # visualize results dens_dat <- melt(new_dat, id = c("a"), measure.vars = c("pred_w_pos", "pred_w_zero", "pred_w_neg") ) p_dens <- ggplot(dens_dat, aes(x = a, y = value, colour = variable)) + geom_point() + geom_line() + stat_function( fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = -2, sd = 0.25), colour = "blue", linetype = "dashed" ) + stat_function( fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = 0, sd = 0.25), colour = "darkgreen", linetype = "dashed" ) + stat_function( fun = dnorm, args = list(mean = 2, sd = 0.25), colour = "red", linetype = "dashed" ) + labs( x = "Observed value of W", y = "Estimated conditional density", title = "Conditional density estimates g(A|W)" ) + theme_bw() + theme(legend.position = "none") p_dens
In the above example, we generate synthetic data along a grid of $A$ and three
values of $W$ ($W \in {-2, 0, +2}$), representing distinct groups/strata with
respect to the covariate $W$. Using this data, we use the trained haldensify
model to predict the density of $A$, conditional on the paired value of $W$,
yielding estimates of the conditional density for each of these three
hypothetical strata of $W$. The resultant figure depicts the estimated
conditional density as colored points (blue for $W = -2$, green for $W = 0$, and
red for $W = +2$), and the theoretical density for each group as smooth curves
(using ggplot2's stat_function()). For each group, the differences between
the estimated conditional densities and the theoretical densities can be taken
as indicative of the quality of the haldensify estimator in this example.
Overall, the haldensify estimator appears to recover the underlying density of
$A$ best for the group $W = 0$, with slightly degraded performance for $W = -2$,
which degrades further for $W = +2$. The haldensify conditional density
estimator has been used to estimate the generalized propensity score in
applications of the methodology described in @hejazi2020efficient.
Nonparametric inverse probability weighted estimation
As mentioned above, the generalized propensity score is a critical ingredient
in evaluating causal effects for continuous treatments. A popular framework
for defining and evaluating such causal effects is that of modified treatment
policies [@haneuse2013estimation; @diaz2018stochastic; @hejazi2022efficient],
which define interventions that shift (or modify) the treatment. For example,
in a setting with a continuous treatment $A$, in which we additionally collect
baseline covariates $W$ and an outcome measurement $Y$ (so that the data on a
given unit is $O = (W, A, Y)$), we could consider an intervention that sets the
value of $A$ via $d(A,W; \delta) = A + \delta(W)$, for a user-defined function
$d(A,W;\delta)$ indexed by a function (or scalar) $\delta$. This intervention
regime is a simple example of a modified treatment policy (MTP); it can be
thought of mapping the observed $A$ to a counterfactual $A_{\delta}$ that is
itself an additive shift of the natural value of $A$. The counterfactual mean of
such an intervention would be expressed $\mathbb{E}[Y(A_{\delta})]$, where
$Y(A_{\delta})$ is the potential outcome that would be observed had the
treatment taken the value $A_{\delta}$. Both @haneuse2013estimation and
@diaz2018stochastic proposed substitution, inverse probability weighted (IPW),
and doubly robust estimators of a statistical functional $\psi$ that identifies
this counterfactual mean under standard assumptions. Doubly robust estimators of
$\psi$ are implemented in the txshift R package [@hejazi2020txshift-joss;
@hejazi2022txshift-rpkg]; such estimation frameworks are usually necessary in
order to take advantage of flexible estimators of nuisance parameters.
Despite the popularity of doubly robust estimation procedures, IPW estimators
can be modified to accommodate data adaptive estimation of the (generalized)
propensity score. Such nonparametric IPW estimators, based on HAL, have been
described by @ertefaie2020nonparametric in the context of binary treatments,
and by @hejazi2022efficient for continuous treatments. The IPW estimator of
$\psi$ is $\psi_{n,\text{IPW}} = {\tilde{g}{n,A}(A \mid W) / g{n,A}(A \mid
W)} Y$, where $g_{n,A}$ is an estimator of the generalized propensity score
(e.g., as produced by haldensify()) and $\tilde{g}{n,A}$ is this quantity
evaluated at the post-intervention value of the treatment $A{\delta}$. Usually,
$g_{n,A}$ must be estimated via parametric modeling strategies in order for
$\psi_{n,\text{IPW}}$ to achieve desirable asymptotic properties (unbiasedness,
efficiency); however, when $g_{n,A}$ is estimated flexibly, sieve estimation
strategies (undersmoothing) may be used to select an estimator $g_{n,A}$, from
among an appropriate class, that allows for optimal estimation of $\psi$. This
issue arises in part because strategies for optimal selection of $g_{n,A}$
(e.g., cross-validation) optimize for estimation of the conditional density,
ignoring the fact that it is only a nuisance parameter in the process of IPW
estimation. When haldensify() is used for this purpose, a family of
conditional density estimators $g_{n,A,\lambda}$, indexed by the $\ell_1$
regularization term $\lambda$, are generated, with cross-validation used to
select an optimal estimator from among this trajectory in $\lambda$. We saw this
above when we visualized the empirical risk profile of $g_{n,A}$. While
empirical risk minimization based on the framework of cross-validated loss-based
estimation is appropriate for optimally estimating the generalized propensity
score, the selected estimator will fail to yield an IPW estimator with desirable
asymptotic properties; undersmoothing must be used to select a more appropriate
estimator. The haldensify package implements nonparametric IPW estimators that
incorporate undersmoothing in the ipw_shift() function, the use of which we
demonstrate below.
Example: Nonparametric IPW estimation
To begin, we set up a new data-generating process and simulate data for $n = 200$ units from it. We will aim to estimate the counterfactual mean of $Y$ under an MTP that shifts $A$ by $\delta = 2$.
# set up data-generating process make_example_data <- function(n_obs) { W <- runif(n_obs, 1, 4) A <- rpois(n_obs, 2 * W + 1) Y <- rbinom(n_obs, 1, plogis(2 - A + W + 3)) dat <- as.data.table(list(Y = Y, A = A, W = W)) return(dat) } # generate data and take a look (dat_obs <- make_example_data(n_obs = 200))
With this dataset, we can now simply call the ipw_shift() function, providing
arguments that specify the causal effect of interest (delta = 2) and tuning
parameters for estimating the generalized propensity score (lambda_seq,
cv_folds, n_bins). The selector_type argument specifies the type of
undersmoothing to be used to select an appropriate IPW estimator (from among a
sequence in $\lambda$); setting the option selector_type = "all" simply
returns IPW estimators for each of the selectors implemented. For a formal
description of the selectors and numerical experiments examining their
performance, see @hejazi2022efficient.
est_ipw <- ipw_shift( W = dat_obs$W, A = dat_obs$A, Y = dat_obs$Y, delta = 2, cv_folds = 2L, n_bins = 5L, bin_type = "equal_range", selector_type = "all", lambda_seq = exp(seq(-1, -10, length = 500L)), # arguments passed to hal9001::fit_hal() max_degree = 2, reduce_basis = 1 / sqrt(n_obs) ) confint(est_ipw)
The confint() method used above simply creates confidence intervals (95%, by
default) for each of the IPW estimates returned. Examining the output, we can
see that the IPW estimator based on cross-validation ("gcv") differs from that
based on minimization of an important criterion from semiparametric efficiency
theory ("dcar_min"). These estimators have different asymptotic properties,
with the latter guaranteed to solve an estimating function required for the
characterization of asymptotically efficient estimators.
References
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