Nothing
R/matchit2nearest.R
In MatchIt: Nonparametric Preprocessing for Parametric Causal Inference
Defines functions
nn_matchC_dispatch
matchit2nearest
#' Nearest Neighbor Matching
#' @name method_nearest
#' @aliases method_nearest
#' @usage NULL
#'
#' @description
#' In [matchit()], setting `method = "nearest"` performs greedy nearest
#' neighbor matching. A distance is computed between each treated unit and each
#' control unit, and, one by one, each treated unit is assigned a control unit
#' as a match. The matching is "greedy" in the sense that there is no action
#' taken to optimize an overall criterion; each match is selected without
#' considering the other matches that may occur subsequently.
#'
#' This page details the allowable arguments with `method = "nearest"`.
#' See [matchit()] for an explanation of what each argument means in a general
#' context and how it can be specified.
#'
#' Below is how `matchit()` is used for nearest neighbor matching:
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(formula,
#' data = NULL,
#' method = "nearest",
#' distance = "glm",
#' link = "logit",
#' distance.options = list(),
#' estimand = "ATT",
#' exact = NULL,
#' mahvars = NULL,
#' antiexact = NULL,
#' discard = "none",
#' reestimate = FALSE,
#' s.weights = NULL,
#' replace = TRUE,
#' m.order = NULL,
#' caliper = NULL,
#' ratio = 1,
#' min.controls = NULL,
#' max.controls = NULL,
#' verbose = FALSE,
#' ...) }
#'
#' @param formula a two-sided [formula] object containing the treatment and
#' covariates to be used in creating the distance measure used in the matching.
#' @param data a data frame containing the variables named in `formula`.
#' If not found in `data`, the variables will be sought in the
#' environment.
#' @param method set here to `"nearest"`.
#' @param distance the distance measure to be used. See [`distance`]
#' for allowable options. Can be supplied as a distance matrix.
#' @param link when `distance` is specified as a method of estimating
#' propensity scores, an additional argument controlling the link function used
#' in estimating the distance measure. See [`distance`] for allowable
#' options with each option.
#' @param distance.options a named list containing additional arguments
#' supplied to the function that estimates the distance measure as determined
#' by the argument to `distance`.
#' @param estimand a string containing the desired estimand. Allowable options
#' include `"ATT"` and `"ATC"`. See Details.
#' @param exact for which variables exact matching should take place.
#' @param mahvars for which variables Mahalanobis distance matching should take
#' place when `distance` corresponds to a propensity score (e.g., for
#' caliper matching or to discard units for common support). If specified, the
#' distance measure will not be used in matching.
#' @param antiexact for which variables ant-exact matching should take place.
#' @param discard a string containing a method for discarding units outside a
#' region of common support. Only allowed when `distance` corresponds to a
#' propensity score.
#' @param reestimate if `discard` is not `"none"`, whether to
#' re-estimate the propensity score in the remaining sample prior to matching.
#' @param s.weights the variable containing sampling weights to be incorporated
#' into propensity score models and balance statistics.
#' @param replace whether matching should be done with replacement.
#' @param m.order the order that the matching takes place. Allowable options
#' include `"largest"`, where matching takes place in descending order of
#' distance measures; `"smallest"`, where matching takes place in ascending
#' order of distance measures; `"closest"`, where matching takes place in
#' order of the distance between units; `"random"`, where matching takes place
#' in a random order; and `"data"` where matching takes place based on the
#' order of units in the data. When `m.order = "random"`, results may differ
#' across different runs of the same code unless a seed is set and specified
#' with [set.seed()]. The default of `NULL` corresponds to `"largest"` when a
#' propensity score is estimated or supplied as a vector and `"data"`
#' otherwise.
#' @param caliper the width(s) of the caliper(s) used for caliper matching. See
#' Details and Examples.
#' @param std.caliper `logical`; when calipers are specified, whether they
#' are in standard deviation units (`TRUE`) or raw units (`FALSE`).
#' @param ratio how many control units should be matched to each treated unit
#' for k:1 matching. For variable ratio matching, see section "Variable Ratio
#' Matching" in Details below.
#' @param min.controls,max.controls for variable ratio matching, the minimum
#' and maximum number of controls units to be matched to each treated unit. See
#' section "Variable Ratio Matching" in Details below.
#' @param verbose `logical`; whether information about the matching
#' process should be printed to the console. When `TRUE`, a progress bar
#' implemented using *RcppProgress* will be displayed.
#' @param \dots additional arguments that control the matching specification:
#' \describe{
#' \item{`reuse.max`}{ `numeric`; the maximum number of
#' times each control can be used as a match. Setting `reuse.max = 1`
#' corresponds to matching without replacement (i.e., `replace = FALSE`),
#' and setting `reuse.max = Inf` corresponds to traditional matching with
#' replacement (i.e., `replace = TRUE`) with no limit on the number of
#' times each control unit can be matched. Other values restrict the number of
#' times each control can be matched when matching with replacement.
#' `replace` is ignored when `reuse.max` is specified. }
#' \item{`unit.id`}{ one or more variables containing a unit ID for each
#' observation, i.e., in case multiple observations correspond to the same
#' unit. Once a control observation has been matched, no other observation with
#' the same unit ID can be used as matches. This ensures each control unit is
#' used only once even if it has multiple observations associated with it.
#' Omitting this argument is the same as giving each observation a unique ID.
#' Ignored when `replace = TRUE`. }
#' }
#'
#' @note Sometimes an error will be produced by *Rcpp* along the lines of
#' `"function 'Rcpp_precious_remove' not provided by package 'Rcpp'"`. It
#' is not immediately clear why this happens, though
#' [this](https://lists.r-forge.r-project.org/pipermail/rcpp-devel/2021-July/010648.html)
#' thread appears to provide some insight. In a fresh session, run
#' `remove.packages(c("MatchIt", "Rcpp")); install.packages("MatchIt")`.
#' This should sync *MatchIt* and *Rcpp* and ensure they work
#' correctly.
#'
#' @section Outputs:
#' All outputs described in [matchit()] are returned with
#' `method = "nearest"`. When `replace = TRUE`, the `subclass`
#' component is omitted. `include.obj` is ignored.
#'
#' @details
#' ## Mahalanobis Distance Matching
#'
#' Mahalanobis distance matching can be done one of two ways:
#' \enumerate{
#' \item{If no propensity score needs to be estimated, `distance` should be
#' set to `"mahalanobis"`, and Mahalanobis distance matching will occur
#' using all the variables in `formula`. Arguments to `discard` and
#' `mahvars` will be ignored, and a caliper can only be placed on named
#' variables. For example, to perform simple Mahalanobis distance matching, the
#' following could be run:
#'
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(treat ~ X1 + X2, method = "nearest",
#' distance = "mahalanobis") }
#'
#' With this code, the Mahalanobis distance is computed using `X1` and
#' `X2`, and matching occurs on this distance. The `distance`
#' component of the `matchit()` output will be empty.
#' }
#' \item{If a propensity score needs to be estimated for any reason, e.g., for
#' common support with `discard` or for creating a caliper,
#' `distance` should be whatever method is used to estimate the propensity
#' score or a vector of distance measures. Use `mahvars` to specify the
#' variables used to create the Mahalanobis distance. For example, to perform
#' Mahalanobis within a propensity score caliper, the following could be run:
#'
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(treat ~ X1 + X2 + X3, method = "nearest",
#' distance = "glm", caliper = .25,
#' mahvars = ~ X1 + X2) }
#'
#' With this code, `X1`, `X2`, and `X3` are used to estimate the
#' propensity score (using the `"glm"` method, which by default is
#' logistic regression), which is used to create a matching caliper. The actual
#' matching occurs on the Mahalanobis distance computed only using `X1`
#' and `X2`, which are supplied to `mahvars`. Units whose propensity
#' score difference is larger than the caliper will not be paired, and some
#' treated units may therefore not receive a match. The estimated propensity
#' scores will be included in the `distance` component of the
#' `matchit()` output. See Examples.
#' }
#' }
#' ## Estimand
#'
#' The `estimand` argument controls whether control units are selected to be
#' matched with treated units (`estimand = "ATT"`) or treated units are
#' selected to be matched with control units (`estimand = "ATC"`). The
#' "focal" group (e.g., the treated units for the ATT) is typically made to be
#' the smaller treatment group, and a warning will be thrown if it is not set
#' that way unless `replace = TRUE`. Setting `estimand = "ATC"` is
#' equivalent to swapping all treated and control labels for the treatment
#' variable. When `estimand = "ATC"`, the default `m.order` is
#' `"smallest"`, and the `match.matrix` component of the output will
#' have the names of the control units as the rownames and be filled with the
#' names of the matched treated units (opposite to when `estimand =
#' "ATT"`). Note that the argument supplied to `estimand` doesn't
#' necessarily correspond to the estimand actually targeted; it is merely a
#' switch to trigger which treatment group is considered "focal".
#'
#' ## Variable Ratio Matching
#'
#' `matchit()` can perform variable
#' ratio "extremal" matching as described by Ming and Rosenbaum (2000). This
#' method tends to result in better balance than fixed ratio matching at the
#' expense of some precision. When `ratio > 1`, rather than requiring all
#' treated units to receive `ratio` matches, each treated unit is assigned
#' a value that corresponds to the number of control units they will be matched
#' to. These values are controlled by the arguments `min.controls` and
#' `max.controls`, which correspond to \eqn{\alpha} and \eqn{\beta},
#' respectively, in Ming and Rosenbaum (2000), and trigger variable ratio
#' matching to occur. Some treated units will receive `min.controls`
#' matches and others will receive `max.controls` matches (and one unit
#' may have an intermediate number of matches); how many units are assigned
#' each number of matches is determined by the algorithm described in Ming and
#' Rosenbaum (2000, p119). `ratio` controls how many total control units
#' will be matched: `n1 * ratio` control units will be matched, where
#' `n1` is the number of treated units, yielding the same total number of
#' matched controls as fixed ratio matching does.
#'
#' Variable ratio matching cannot be used with Mahalanobis distance matching or
#' when `distance` is supplied as a matrix. The calculations of the
#' numbers of control units each treated unit will be matched to occurs without
#' consideration of `caliper` or `discard`. `ratio` does not
#' have to be an integer but must be greater than 1 and less than `n0/n1`,
#' where `n0` and `n1` are the number of control and treated units,
#' respectively. Setting `ratio = n0/n1` performs a crude form of full
#' matching where all control units are matched. If `min.controls` is not
#' specified, it is set to 1 by default. `min.controls` must be less than
#' `ratio`, and `max.controls` must be greater than `ratio`. See
#' Examples below for an example of their use.
#'
#' ## Using `m.order = "closest"`
#'
#' As of version 4.6.0, `m.order` can be set to `"closest"`, which works regardless of how the distance measure is specified. This matches in order of the distance between units. The closest pair of units across all potential pairs of units will be matched first; the second closest pair of all potential pairs will be matched second, etc. This ensures that the best possible matches are given priority, and in that sense performs similarly to `m.order = "smallest"`.
#'
#' @seealso [matchit()] for a detailed explanation of the inputs and outputs of
#' a call to `matchit()`.
#'
#' [method_optimal()] for optimal pair matching, which is similar to
#' nearest neighbor matching except that an overall distance criterion is
#' minimized.
#'
#' @references In a manuscript, you don't need to cite another package when
#' using `method = "nearest"` because the matching is performed completely
#' within *MatchIt*. For example, a sentence might read:
#'
#' *Nearest neighbor matching was performed using the MatchIt package (Ho, Imai, King, & Stuart, 2011) in R.*
#'
#' @examples
#' data("lalonde")
#'
#' # 1:1 greedy NN matching on the PS
#' m.out1 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest")
#' m.out1
#' summary(m.out1)
#'
#' # 3:1 NN Mahalanobis distance matching with
#' # replacement within a PS caliper
#' m.out2 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", replace = TRUE,
#' mahvars = ~ age + educ + re74 + re75,
#' ratio = 3, caliper = .02)
#' m.out2
#' summary(m.out2, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # 1:1 NN Mahalanobis distance matching within calipers
#' # on re74 and re75 and exact matching on married and race
#' m.out3 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", distance = "mahalanobis",
#' exact = ~ married + race,
#' caliper = c(re74 = .2, re75 = .15))
#' m.out3
#' summary(m.out3, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # 2:1 variable ratio NN matching on the PS
#' m.out4 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", ratio = 2,
#' min.controls = 1, max.controls = 12)
#' m.out4
#' summary(m.out4, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # Some units received 1 match and some received 12
#' table(table(m.out4$subclass[m.out4$treat == 0]))
#'
NULL
matchit2nearest <- function(treat, data, distance, discarded,
ratio = 1, s.weights = NULL, replace = FALSE, m.order = NULL,
caliper = NULL, mahvars = NULL, exact = NULL,
formula = NULL, estimand = "ATT", verbose = FALSE,
is.full.mahalanobis,
antiexact = NULL, unit.id = NULL, ...){
if (verbose) {
rlang::check_installed("RcppProgress")
cat("Nearest neighbor matching... \n")
}
estimand <- toupper(estimand)
estimand <- match_arg(estimand, c("ATT", "ATC"))
if (estimand == "ATC") {
tc <- c("control", "treated")
focal <- 0
}
else {
tc <- c("treated", "control")
focal <- 1
}
treat <- setNames(as.integer(treat == focal), names(treat))
if (is.full.mahalanobis) {
if (length(attr(terms(formula, data = data), "term.labels")) == 0) {
.err(sprintf("covariates must be specified in the input formula when `distance = \"%s\"`",
attr(is.full.mahalanobis, "transform")))
}
mahvars <- formula
}
n.obs <- length(treat)
n1 <- sum(treat == 1)
n0 <- n.obs - n1
lab <- names(treat)
lab1 <- lab[treat == 1]
if (!is.null(distance)) {
names(distance) <- names(treat)
}
min.controls <- attr(ratio, "min.controls")
max.controls <- attr(ratio, "max.controls")
mahcovs <- distance_mat <- NULL
if (!is.null(mahvars)) {
transform <- if (is.full.mahalanobis) attr(is.full.mahalanobis, "transform") else "mahalanobis"
mahcovs <- transform_covariates(mahvars, data = data, method = transform,
s.weights = s.weights, treat = treat,
discarded = discarded)
}
else if (is.matrix(distance)) {
distance_mat <- distance
distance <- NULL
if (focal == 0) distance_mat <- t(distance_mat)
}
#Process caliper
if (!is.null(caliper)) {
if (any(names(caliper) != "")) {
caliper.covs <- caliper[names(caliper) != ""]
caliper.covs.mat <- get.covs.matrix(reformulate(names(caliper.covs)), data = data)
}
else {
caliper.covs.mat <- caliper.covs <- NULL
}
if (any(names(caliper) == "")) {
caliper.dist <- caliper[names(caliper) == ""]
}
else {
caliper.dist <- NULL
}
}
else {
caliper.dist <- caliper.covs <- NULL
caliper.covs.mat <- NULL
}
#Process antiexact
if (!is.null(antiexact)) {
antiexactcovs <- model.frame(antiexact, data)
antiexactcovs <- do.call("cbind", lapply(seq_len(ncol(antiexactcovs)), function(i) {
as.integer(as.factor(antiexactcovs[[i]]))
}))
}
else {
antiexactcovs <- NULL
}
reuse.max <- attr(replace, "reuse.max")
if (reuse.max >= n1) {
m.order <- "data"
}
if (!is.null(unit.id) && reuse.max < n1) {
unit.id <- process.variable.input(unit.id, data)
unit.id <- factor(exactify(model.frame(unit.id, data = data),
nam = lab, sep = ", ", include_vars = TRUE))
num_ctrl_unit.ids <- length(unique(unit.id[treat == 0]))
#If each control unit is a unit.id, unit.ids are meaningless
if (num_ctrl_unit.ids == n0) unit.id <- NULL
}
else {
unit.id <- NULL
}
if (!is.null(exact)) {
ex <- factor(exactify(model.frame(exact, data = data), nam = lab, sep = ", ", include_vars = TRUE))
cc <- intersect(as.integer(ex)[treat==1], as.integer(ex)[treat==0])
if (length(cc) == 0) .err("No matches were found")
if (reuse.max < n1) {
e_ratios <- vapply(levels(ex), function(e) {
if (is.null(unit.id)) sum(treat[ex == e] == 0)*(reuse.max/sum(treat[ex == e] == 1))
else length(unique(unit.id[treat == 0 & ex == e]))*(reuse.max/sum(treat[ex == e] == 1))
}, numeric(1L))
if (any(e_ratios < 1)) {
.wrn(sprintf("fewer %s units than %s units in some `exact` strata; not all %s units will get a match",
tc[2], tc[1], tc[1]))
}
if (ratio > 1 && any(e_ratios < ratio)) {
if (is.null(max.controls) || ratio == max.controls)
.wrn(sprintf("not all %s units will get %s matches",
tc[1], ratio))
else
.wrn(sprintf("not enough %s units for an average of %s matches per %s unit in all `exact` strata",
tc[2], ratio, tc[1]))
}
}
}
else {
ex <- NULL
if (reuse.max < n1) {
e_ratios <- {
if (is.null(unit.id)) as.numeric(reuse.max)*n0/n1
else as.numeric(reuse.max)*num_ctrl_unit.ids/n1
}
if (e_ratios < 1) {
.wrn(sprintf("fewer %s %s than %s units; not all %s units will get a match",
tc[2], if (is.null(unit.id)) "units" else "unit IDs", tc[1], tc[1]))
}
else if (e_ratios < ratio) {
if (is.null(max.controls) || ratio == max.controls)
.wrn(sprintf("not all %s units will get %s matches",
tc[1], ratio))
else
.wrn(sprintf("not enough %s %s for an average of %s matches per %s unit",
tc[2], if (is.null(unit.id)) "units" else "unit IDs", ratio, tc[1]))
}
}
}
#Variable ratio (extremal matching), Ming & Rosenbaum (2000)
#Each treated unit get its own value of ratio
if (!is.null(max.controls)) {
if (is.null(distance)) {
if (is.full.mahalanobis) .err(sprintf("`distance` cannot be \"%s\" for variable ratio matching",
transform))
.err("`distance` cannot be supplied as a matrix for variable ratio matching")
}
m <- round(ratio * n1)
# if (m > sum(treat == 0)) stop("'ratio' must be less than or equal to n0/n1")
kmax <- floor((m - min.controls*(n1-1)) / (max.controls - min.controls))
kmin <- n1 - kmax - 1
kmed <- m - (min.controls*kmin + max.controls*kmax)
ratio0 <- c(rep(min.controls, kmin), kmed, rep(max.controls, kmax))
#Make sure no units are assigned 0 matches
if (any(ratio0 == 0)) {
ind <- which(ratio0 == 0)
ratio0[ind] <- 1
ratio0[ind + 1] <- ratio0[ind + 1] - 1
}
ratio <- rep(NA_integer_, n1)
#Order by distance; treated are supposed to have higher values
ratio[order(distance[treat == 1],
decreasing = mean(distance[treat == 1]) > mean(distance[treat != 1]))] <- ratio0
ratio <- as.integer(ratio)
}
else {
ratio <- as.integer(rep(ratio, n1))
}
m.order <- {
if (is.null(distance)) match_arg(m.order, c("data", "random", "closest"))
else if (!is.null(m.order)) match_arg(m.order, c("largest", "smallest", "data", "random", "closest"))
else if (estimand == "ATC") "smallest"
else "largest"
}
if (is.null(ex) || !is.null(unit.id)) {
if (m.order == "closest") {
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) {
distance_mat <- eucdist_internal(mahcovs, treat)
# If caliper on PS (distance), treat it as a covariate
if (!is.null(distance) && !is.null(caliper.dist)) {
caliper.covs.mat <- {
if (is.null(caliper.covs)) as.matrix(distance)
else cbind(caliper.covs.mat, distance)
}
caliper.covs <- c(caliper.covs, caliper.dist)
caliper.dist <- NULL
}
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat)) {
distance_mat <- eucdist_internal(distance, treat)
}
ord <- NULL
}
else {
ord <- switch(m.order,
"largest" = order(distance[treat == 1], decreasing = TRUE),
"smallest" = order(distance[treat == 1], decreasing = FALSE),
"random" = sample.int(n1),
"data" = seq_len(n1))
}
mm <- nn_matchC_dispatch(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, m.order, verbose)
}
else {
distance_ <- caliper.covs.mat_ <- mahcovs_ <- antiexactcovs_ <- distance_mat_ <- NULL
mm_list <- lapply(levels(ex)[cc], function(e) {
if (verbose) {
cat(sprintf("Matching subgroup %s/%s: %s...\n",
match(e, levels(ex)[cc]), length(cc), e))
}
.e <- which(ex == e)
.e1 <- which(ex[treat==1] == e)
treat_ <- treat[.e]
discarded_ <- discarded[.e]
if (!is.null(distance)) distance_ <- distance[.e]
if (!is.null(caliper.covs.mat)) caliper.covs.mat_ <- caliper.covs.mat[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) mahcovs_ <- mahcovs[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(antiexactcovs)) antiexactcovs_ <- antiexactcovs[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(distance_mat)) {
.e0 <- which(ex[treat==0] == e)
distance_mat_ <- distance_mat[.e1, .e0, drop = FALSE]
}
ratio_ <- ratio[.e1]
n1_ <- sum(treat_ == 1)
if (m.order == "closest") {
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) {
distance_mat_ <- eucdist_internal(mahcovs_, treat_)
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat)) {
distance_mat_ <- eucdist_internal(distance_, treat_)
}
ord <- NULL
}
else {
ord_ <- switch(m.order,
"largest" = order(distance_[treat_ == 1], decreasing = TRUE),
"smallest" = order(distance_[treat_ == 1], decreasing = FALSE),
"random" = sample.int(n1_),
"data" = seq_len(n1_))
}
mm_ <- nn_matchC_dispatch(treat_, ord_, ratio_, discarded_, reuse.max, distance_, distance_mat_,
NULL, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat_, mahcovs_,
antiexactcovs_, NULL, m.order, verbose)
#Ensure matched indices correspond to indices in full sample, not subgroup
mm_[] <- seq_along(treat)[.e][mm_]
mm_
})
#Construct match.matrix
mm <- matrix(NA_integer_, nrow = length(lab1),
ncol = max(vapply(mm_list, ncol, numeric(1L))),
dimnames = list(lab1, NULL))
for (m in mm_list) {
mm[rownames(m), seq_len(ncol(m))] <- m
}
}
if (verbose) cat("Calculating matching weights... ")
if (reuse.max > 1) {
psclass <- NULL
}
else {
psclass <- mm2subclass(mm, treat)
}
res <- list(match.matrix = nummm2charmm(mm, treat),
subclass = psclass,
weights = get_weights_from_mm(mm, treat))
if (verbose) cat("Done.\n")
class(res) <- "matchit"
res
}
# Dispatches Rcpp function for NN matching
# nn_matchC_vec() if distance_mat and mahcovs are NULL
# nn_matchC() otherwise
nn_matchC_dispatch <- function(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat, ex, caliper.dist,
caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs, antiexactcovs, unit.id, m.order, verbose) {
if (m.order == "closest") {
nn_matchC_closest(distance_mat, treat, ratio, discarded, reuse.max,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat) && is.null(mahcovs)) {
nn_matchC_vec(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
else {
nn_matchC(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
}
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Defines functions nn_matchC_dispatch matchit2nearest
#' Nearest Neighbor Matching
#' @name method_nearest
#' @aliases method_nearest
#' @usage NULL
#'
#' @description
#' In [matchit()], setting `method = "nearest"` performs greedy nearest
#' neighbor matching. A distance is computed between each treated unit and each
#' control unit, and, one by one, each treated unit is assigned a control unit
#' as a match. The matching is "greedy" in the sense that there is no action
#' taken to optimize an overall criterion; each match is selected without
#' considering the other matches that may occur subsequently.
#'
#' This page details the allowable arguments with `method = "nearest"`.
#' See [matchit()] for an explanation of what each argument means in a general
#' context and how it can be specified.
#'
#' Below is how `matchit()` is used for nearest neighbor matching:
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(formula,
#' data = NULL,
#' method = "nearest",
#' distance = "glm",
#' link = "logit",
#' distance.options = list(),
#' estimand = "ATT",
#' exact = NULL,
#' mahvars = NULL,
#' antiexact = NULL,
#' discard = "none",
#' reestimate = FALSE,
#' s.weights = NULL,
#' replace = TRUE,
#' m.order = NULL,
#' caliper = NULL,
#' ratio = 1,
#' min.controls = NULL,
#' max.controls = NULL,
#' verbose = FALSE,
#' ...) }
#'
#' @param formula a two-sided [formula] object containing the treatment and
#' covariates to be used in creating the distance measure used in the matching.
#' @param data a data frame containing the variables named in `formula`.
#' If not found in `data`, the variables will be sought in the
#' environment.
#' @param method set here to `"nearest"`.
#' @param distance the distance measure to be used. See [`distance`]
#' for allowable options. Can be supplied as a distance matrix.
#' @param link when `distance` is specified as a method of estimating
#' propensity scores, an additional argument controlling the link function used
#' in estimating the distance measure. See [`distance`] for allowable
#' options with each option.
#' @param distance.options a named list containing additional arguments
#' supplied to the function that estimates the distance measure as determined
#' by the argument to `distance`.
#' @param estimand a string containing the desired estimand. Allowable options
#' include `"ATT"` and `"ATC"`. See Details.
#' @param exact for which variables exact matching should take place.
#' @param mahvars for which variables Mahalanobis distance matching should take
#' place when `distance` corresponds to a propensity score (e.g., for
#' caliper matching or to discard units for common support). If specified, the
#' distance measure will not be used in matching.
#' @param antiexact for which variables ant-exact matching should take place.
#' @param discard a string containing a method for discarding units outside a
#' region of common support. Only allowed when `distance` corresponds to a
#' propensity score.
#' @param reestimate if `discard` is not `"none"`, whether to
#' re-estimate the propensity score in the remaining sample prior to matching.
#' @param s.weights the variable containing sampling weights to be incorporated
#' into propensity score models and balance statistics.
#' @param replace whether matching should be done with replacement.
#' @param m.order the order that the matching takes place. Allowable options
#' include `"largest"`, where matching takes place in descending order of
#' distance measures; `"smallest"`, where matching takes place in ascending
#' order of distance measures; `"closest"`, where matching takes place in
#' order of the distance between units; `"random"`, where matching takes place
#' in a random order; and `"data"` where matching takes place based on the
#' order of units in the data. When `m.order = "random"`, results may differ
#' across different runs of the same code unless a seed is set and specified
#' with [set.seed()]. The default of `NULL` corresponds to `"largest"` when a
#' propensity score is estimated or supplied as a vector and `"data"`
#' otherwise.
#' @param caliper the width(s) of the caliper(s) used for caliper matching. See
#' Details and Examples.
#' @param std.caliper `logical`; when calipers are specified, whether they
#' are in standard deviation units (`TRUE`) or raw units (`FALSE`).
#' @param ratio how many control units should be matched to each treated unit
#' for k:1 matching. For variable ratio matching, see section "Variable Ratio
#' Matching" in Details below.
#' @param min.controls,max.controls for variable ratio matching, the minimum
#' and maximum number of controls units to be matched to each treated unit. See
#' section "Variable Ratio Matching" in Details below.
#' @param verbose `logical`; whether information about the matching
#' process should be printed to the console. When `TRUE`, a progress bar
#' implemented using *RcppProgress* will be displayed.
#' @param \dots additional arguments that control the matching specification:
#' \describe{
#' \item{`reuse.max`}{ `numeric`; the maximum number of
#' times each control can be used as a match. Setting `reuse.max = 1`
#' corresponds to matching without replacement (i.e., `replace = FALSE`),
#' and setting `reuse.max = Inf` corresponds to traditional matching with
#' replacement (i.e., `replace = TRUE`) with no limit on the number of
#' times each control unit can be matched. Other values restrict the number of
#' times each control can be matched when matching with replacement.
#' `replace` is ignored when `reuse.max` is specified. }
#' \item{`unit.id`}{ one or more variables containing a unit ID for each
#' observation, i.e., in case multiple observations correspond to the same
#' unit. Once a control observation has been matched, no other observation with
#' the same unit ID can be used as matches. This ensures each control unit is
#' used only once even if it has multiple observations associated with it.
#' Omitting this argument is the same as giving each observation a unique ID.
#' Ignored when `replace = TRUE`. }
#' }
#'
#' @note Sometimes an error will be produced by *Rcpp* along the lines of
#' `"function 'Rcpp_precious_remove' not provided by package 'Rcpp'"`. It
#' is not immediately clear why this happens, though
#' [this](https://lists.r-forge.r-project.org/pipermail/rcpp-devel/2021-July/010648.html)
#' thread appears to provide some insight. In a fresh session, run
#' `remove.packages(c("MatchIt", "Rcpp")); install.packages("MatchIt")`.
#' This should sync *MatchIt* and *Rcpp* and ensure they work
#' correctly.
#'
#' @section Outputs:
#' All outputs described in [matchit()] are returned with
#' `method = "nearest"`. When `replace = TRUE`, the `subclass`
#' component is omitted. `include.obj` is ignored.
#'
#' @details
#' ## Mahalanobis Distance Matching
#'
#' Mahalanobis distance matching can be done one of two ways:
#' \enumerate{
#' \item{If no propensity score needs to be estimated, `distance` should be
#' set to `"mahalanobis"`, and Mahalanobis distance matching will occur
#' using all the variables in `formula`. Arguments to `discard` and
#' `mahvars` will be ignored, and a caliper can only be placed on named
#' variables. For example, to perform simple Mahalanobis distance matching, the
#' following could be run:
#'
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(treat ~ X1 + X2, method = "nearest",
#' distance = "mahalanobis") }
#'
#' With this code, the Mahalanobis distance is computed using `X1` and
#' `X2`, and matching occurs on this distance. The `distance`
#' component of the `matchit()` output will be empty.
#' }
#' \item{If a propensity score needs to be estimated for any reason, e.g., for
#' common support with `discard` or for creating a caliper,
#' `distance` should be whatever method is used to estimate the propensity
#' score or a vector of distance measures. Use `mahvars` to specify the
#' variables used to create the Mahalanobis distance. For example, to perform
#' Mahalanobis within a propensity score caliper, the following could be run:
#'
#' \preformatted{
#' matchit(treat ~ X1 + X2 + X3, method = "nearest",
#' distance = "glm", caliper = .25,
#' mahvars = ~ X1 + X2) }
#'
#' With this code, `X1`, `X2`, and `X3` are used to estimate the
#' propensity score (using the `"glm"` method, which by default is
#' logistic regression), which is used to create a matching caliper. The actual
#' matching occurs on the Mahalanobis distance computed only using `X1`
#' and `X2`, which are supplied to `mahvars`. Units whose propensity
#' score difference is larger than the caliper will not be paired, and some
#' treated units may therefore not receive a match. The estimated propensity
#' scores will be included in the `distance` component of the
#' `matchit()` output. See Examples.
#' }
#' }
#' ## Estimand
#'
#' The `estimand` argument controls whether control units are selected to be
#' matched with treated units (`estimand = "ATT"`) or treated units are
#' selected to be matched with control units (`estimand = "ATC"`). The
#' "focal" group (e.g., the treated units for the ATT) is typically made to be
#' the smaller treatment group, and a warning will be thrown if it is not set
#' that way unless `replace = TRUE`. Setting `estimand = "ATC"` is
#' equivalent to swapping all treated and control labels for the treatment
#' variable. When `estimand = "ATC"`, the default `m.order` is
#' `"smallest"`, and the `match.matrix` component of the output will
#' have the names of the control units as the rownames and be filled with the
#' names of the matched treated units (opposite to when `estimand =
#' "ATT"`). Note that the argument supplied to `estimand` doesn't
#' necessarily correspond to the estimand actually targeted; it is merely a
#' switch to trigger which treatment group is considered "focal".
#'
#' ## Variable Ratio Matching
#'
#' `matchit()` can perform variable
#' ratio "extremal" matching as described by Ming and Rosenbaum (2000). This
#' method tends to result in better balance than fixed ratio matching at the
#' expense of some precision. When `ratio > 1`, rather than requiring all
#' treated units to receive `ratio` matches, each treated unit is assigned
#' a value that corresponds to the number of control units they will be matched
#' to. These values are controlled by the arguments `min.controls` and
#' `max.controls`, which correspond to \eqn{\alpha} and \eqn{\beta},
#' respectively, in Ming and Rosenbaum (2000), and trigger variable ratio
#' matching to occur. Some treated units will receive `min.controls`
#' matches and others will receive `max.controls` matches (and one unit
#' may have an intermediate number of matches); how many units are assigned
#' each number of matches is determined by the algorithm described in Ming and
#' Rosenbaum (2000, p119). `ratio` controls how many total control units
#' will be matched: `n1 * ratio` control units will be matched, where
#' `n1` is the number of treated units, yielding the same total number of
#' matched controls as fixed ratio matching does.
#'
#' Variable ratio matching cannot be used with Mahalanobis distance matching or
#' when `distance` is supplied as a matrix. The calculations of the
#' numbers of control units each treated unit will be matched to occurs without
#' consideration of `caliper` or `discard`. `ratio` does not
#' have to be an integer but must be greater than 1 and less than `n0/n1`,
#' where `n0` and `n1` are the number of control and treated units,
#' respectively. Setting `ratio = n0/n1` performs a crude form of full
#' matching where all control units are matched. If `min.controls` is not
#' specified, it is set to 1 by default. `min.controls` must be less than
#' `ratio`, and `max.controls` must be greater than `ratio`. See
#' Examples below for an example of their use.
#'
#' ## Using `m.order = "closest"`
#'
#' As of version 4.6.0, `m.order` can be set to `"closest"`, which works regardless of how the distance measure is specified. This matches in order of the distance between units. The closest pair of units across all potential pairs of units will be matched first; the second closest pair of all potential pairs will be matched second, etc. This ensures that the best possible matches are given priority, and in that sense performs similarly to `m.order = "smallest"`.
#'
#' @seealso [matchit()] for a detailed explanation of the inputs and outputs of
#' a call to `matchit()`.
#'
#' [method_optimal()] for optimal pair matching, which is similar to
#' nearest neighbor matching except that an overall distance criterion is
#' minimized.
#'
#' @references In a manuscript, you don't need to cite another package when
#' using `method = "nearest"` because the matching is performed completely
#' within *MatchIt*. For example, a sentence might read:
#'
#' *Nearest neighbor matching was performed using the MatchIt package (Ho, Imai, King, & Stuart, 2011) in R.*
#'
#' @examples
#' data("lalonde")
#'
#' # 1:1 greedy NN matching on the PS
#' m.out1 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest")
#' m.out1
#' summary(m.out1)
#'
#' # 3:1 NN Mahalanobis distance matching with
#' # replacement within a PS caliper
#' m.out2 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", replace = TRUE,
#' mahvars = ~ age + educ + re74 + re75,
#' ratio = 3, caliper = .02)
#' m.out2
#' summary(m.out2, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # 1:1 NN Mahalanobis distance matching within calipers
#' # on re74 and re75 and exact matching on married and race
#' m.out3 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", distance = "mahalanobis",
#' exact = ~ married + race,
#' caliper = c(re74 = .2, re75 = .15))
#' m.out3
#' summary(m.out3, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # 2:1 variable ratio NN matching on the PS
#' m.out4 <- matchit(treat ~ age + educ + race + nodegree +
#' married + re74 + re75, data = lalonde,
#' method = "nearest", ratio = 2,
#' min.controls = 1, max.controls = 12)
#' m.out4
#' summary(m.out4, un = FALSE)
#'
#' # Some units received 1 match and some received 12
#' table(table(m.out4$subclass[m.out4$treat == 0]))
#'
NULL
matchit2nearest <- function(treat, data, distance, discarded,
ratio = 1, s.weights = NULL, replace = FALSE, m.order = NULL,
caliper = NULL, mahvars = NULL, exact = NULL,
formula = NULL, estimand = "ATT", verbose = FALSE,
is.full.mahalanobis,
antiexact = NULL, unit.id = NULL, ...){
if (verbose) {
rlang::check_installed("RcppProgress")
cat("Nearest neighbor matching... \n")
}
estimand <- toupper(estimand)
estimand <- match_arg(estimand, c("ATT", "ATC"))
if (estimand == "ATC") {
tc <- c("control", "treated")
focal <- 0
}
else {
tc <- c("treated", "control")
focal <- 1
}
treat <- setNames(as.integer(treat == focal), names(treat))
if (is.full.mahalanobis) {
if (length(attr(terms(formula, data = data), "term.labels")) == 0) {
.err(sprintf("covariates must be specified in the input formula when `distance = \"%s\"`",
attr(is.full.mahalanobis, "transform")))
}
mahvars <- formula
}
n.obs <- length(treat)
n1 <- sum(treat == 1)
n0 <- n.obs - n1
lab <- names(treat)
lab1 <- lab[treat == 1]
if (!is.null(distance)) {
names(distance) <- names(treat)
}
min.controls <- attr(ratio, "min.controls")
max.controls <- attr(ratio, "max.controls")
mahcovs <- distance_mat <- NULL
if (!is.null(mahvars)) {
transform <- if (is.full.mahalanobis) attr(is.full.mahalanobis, "transform") else "mahalanobis"
mahcovs <- transform_covariates(mahvars, data = data, method = transform,
s.weights = s.weights, treat = treat,
discarded = discarded)
}
else if (is.matrix(distance)) {
distance_mat <- distance
distance <- NULL
if (focal == 0) distance_mat <- t(distance_mat)
}
#Process caliper
if (!is.null(caliper)) {
if (any(names(caliper) != "")) {
caliper.covs <- caliper[names(caliper) != ""]
caliper.covs.mat <- get.covs.matrix(reformulate(names(caliper.covs)), data = data)
}
else {
caliper.covs.mat <- caliper.covs <- NULL
}
if (any(names(caliper) == "")) {
caliper.dist <- caliper[names(caliper) == ""]
}
else {
caliper.dist <- NULL
}
}
else {
caliper.dist <- caliper.covs <- NULL
caliper.covs.mat <- NULL
}
#Process antiexact
if (!is.null(antiexact)) {
antiexactcovs <- model.frame(antiexact, data)
antiexactcovs <- do.call("cbind", lapply(seq_len(ncol(antiexactcovs)), function(i) {
as.integer(as.factor(antiexactcovs[[i]]))
}))
}
else {
antiexactcovs <- NULL
}
reuse.max <- attr(replace, "reuse.max")
if (reuse.max >= n1) {
m.order <- "data"
}
if (!is.null(unit.id) && reuse.max < n1) {
unit.id <- process.variable.input(unit.id, data)
unit.id <- factor(exactify(model.frame(unit.id, data = data),
nam = lab, sep = ", ", include_vars = TRUE))
num_ctrl_unit.ids <- length(unique(unit.id[treat == 0]))
#If each control unit is a unit.id, unit.ids are meaningless
if (num_ctrl_unit.ids == n0) unit.id <- NULL
}
else {
unit.id <- NULL
}
if (!is.null(exact)) {
ex <- factor(exactify(model.frame(exact, data = data), nam = lab, sep = ", ", include_vars = TRUE))
cc <- intersect(as.integer(ex)[treat==1], as.integer(ex)[treat==0])
if (length(cc) == 0) .err("No matches were found")
if (reuse.max < n1) {
e_ratios <- vapply(levels(ex), function(e) {
if (is.null(unit.id)) sum(treat[ex == e] == 0)*(reuse.max/sum(treat[ex == e] == 1))
else length(unique(unit.id[treat == 0 & ex == e]))*(reuse.max/sum(treat[ex == e] == 1))
}, numeric(1L))
if (any(e_ratios < 1)) {
.wrn(sprintf("fewer %s units than %s units in some `exact` strata; not all %s units will get a match",
tc[2], tc[1], tc[1]))
}
if (ratio > 1 && any(e_ratios < ratio)) {
if (is.null(max.controls) || ratio == max.controls)
.wrn(sprintf("not all %s units will get %s matches",
tc[1], ratio))
else
.wrn(sprintf("not enough %s units for an average of %s matches per %s unit in all `exact` strata",
tc[2], ratio, tc[1]))
}
}
}
else {
ex <- NULL
if (reuse.max < n1) {
e_ratios <- {
if (is.null(unit.id)) as.numeric(reuse.max)*n0/n1
else as.numeric(reuse.max)*num_ctrl_unit.ids/n1
}
if (e_ratios < 1) {
.wrn(sprintf("fewer %s %s than %s units; not all %s units will get a match",
tc[2], if (is.null(unit.id)) "units" else "unit IDs", tc[1], tc[1]))
}
else if (e_ratios < ratio) {
if (is.null(max.controls) || ratio == max.controls)
.wrn(sprintf("not all %s units will get %s matches",
tc[1], ratio))
else
.wrn(sprintf("not enough %s %s for an average of %s matches per %s unit",
tc[2], if (is.null(unit.id)) "units" else "unit IDs", ratio, tc[1]))
}
}
}
#Variable ratio (extremal matching), Ming & Rosenbaum (2000)
#Each treated unit get its own value of ratio
if (!is.null(max.controls)) {
if (is.null(distance)) {
if (is.full.mahalanobis) .err(sprintf("`distance` cannot be \"%s\" for variable ratio matching",
transform))
.err("`distance` cannot be supplied as a matrix for variable ratio matching")
}
m <- round(ratio * n1)
# if (m > sum(treat == 0)) stop("'ratio' must be less than or equal to n0/n1")
kmax <- floor((m - min.controls*(n1-1)) / (max.controls - min.controls))
kmin <- n1 - kmax - 1
kmed <- m - (min.controls*kmin + max.controls*kmax)
ratio0 <- c(rep(min.controls, kmin), kmed, rep(max.controls, kmax))
#Make sure no units are assigned 0 matches
if (any(ratio0 == 0)) {
ind <- which(ratio0 == 0)
ratio0[ind] <- 1
ratio0[ind + 1] <- ratio0[ind + 1] - 1
}
ratio <- rep(NA_integer_, n1)
#Order by distance; treated are supposed to have higher values
ratio[order(distance[treat == 1],
decreasing = mean(distance[treat == 1]) > mean(distance[treat != 1]))] <- ratio0
ratio <- as.integer(ratio)
}
else {
ratio <- as.integer(rep(ratio, n1))
}
m.order <- {
if (is.null(distance)) match_arg(m.order, c("data", "random", "closest"))
else if (!is.null(m.order)) match_arg(m.order, c("largest", "smallest", "data", "random", "closest"))
else if (estimand == "ATC") "smallest"
else "largest"
}
if (is.null(ex) || !is.null(unit.id)) {
if (m.order == "closest") {
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) {
distance_mat <- eucdist_internal(mahcovs, treat)
# If caliper on PS (distance), treat it as a covariate
if (!is.null(distance) && !is.null(caliper.dist)) {
caliper.covs.mat <- {
if (is.null(caliper.covs)) as.matrix(distance)
else cbind(caliper.covs.mat, distance)
}
caliper.covs <- c(caliper.covs, caliper.dist)
caliper.dist <- NULL
}
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat)) {
distance_mat <- eucdist_internal(distance, treat)
}
ord <- NULL
}
else {
ord <- switch(m.order,
"largest" = order(distance[treat == 1], decreasing = TRUE),
"smallest" = order(distance[treat == 1], decreasing = FALSE),
"random" = sample.int(n1),
"data" = seq_len(n1))
}
mm <- nn_matchC_dispatch(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, m.order, verbose)
}
else {
distance_ <- caliper.covs.mat_ <- mahcovs_ <- antiexactcovs_ <- distance_mat_ <- NULL
mm_list <- lapply(levels(ex)[cc], function(e) {
if (verbose) {
cat(sprintf("Matching subgroup %s/%s: %s...\n",
match(e, levels(ex)[cc]), length(cc), e))
}
.e <- which(ex == e)
.e1 <- which(ex[treat==1] == e)
treat_ <- treat[.e]
discarded_ <- discarded[.e]
if (!is.null(distance)) distance_ <- distance[.e]
if (!is.null(caliper.covs.mat)) caliper.covs.mat_ <- caliper.covs.mat[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) mahcovs_ <- mahcovs[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(antiexactcovs)) antiexactcovs_ <- antiexactcovs[.e,,drop = FALSE]
if (!is.null(distance_mat)) {
.e0 <- which(ex[treat==0] == e)
distance_mat_ <- distance_mat[.e1, .e0, drop = FALSE]
}
ratio_ <- ratio[.e1]
n1_ <- sum(treat_ == 1)
if (m.order == "closest") {
if (!is.null(mahcovs)) {
distance_mat_ <- eucdist_internal(mahcovs_, treat_)
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat)) {
distance_mat_ <- eucdist_internal(distance_, treat_)
}
ord <- NULL
}
else {
ord_ <- switch(m.order,
"largest" = order(distance_[treat_ == 1], decreasing = TRUE),
"smallest" = order(distance_[treat_ == 1], decreasing = FALSE),
"random" = sample.int(n1_),
"data" = seq_len(n1_))
}
mm_ <- nn_matchC_dispatch(treat_, ord_, ratio_, discarded_, reuse.max, distance_, distance_mat_,
NULL, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat_, mahcovs_,
antiexactcovs_, NULL, m.order, verbose)
#Ensure matched indices correspond to indices in full sample, not subgroup
mm_[] <- seq_along(treat)[.e][mm_]
mm_
})
#Construct match.matrix
mm <- matrix(NA_integer_, nrow = length(lab1),
ncol = max(vapply(mm_list, ncol, numeric(1L))),
dimnames = list(lab1, NULL))
for (m in mm_list) {
mm[rownames(m), seq_len(ncol(m))] <- m
}
}
if (verbose) cat("Calculating matching weights... ")
if (reuse.max > 1) {
psclass <- NULL
}
else {
psclass <- mm2subclass(mm, treat)
}
res <- list(match.matrix = nummm2charmm(mm, treat),
subclass = psclass,
weights = get_weights_from_mm(mm, treat))
if (verbose) cat("Done.\n")
class(res) <- "matchit"
res
}
# Dispatches Rcpp function for NN matching
# nn_matchC_vec() if distance_mat and mahcovs are NULL
# nn_matchC() otherwise
nn_matchC_dispatch <- function(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat, ex, caliper.dist,
caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs, antiexactcovs, unit.id, m.order, verbose) {
if (m.order == "closest") {
nn_matchC_closest(distance_mat, treat, ratio, discarded, reuse.max,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
else if (is.null(distance_mat) && is.null(mahcovs)) {
nn_matchC_vec(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
else {
nn_matchC(treat, ord, ratio, discarded, reuse.max, distance, distance_mat,
ex, caliper.dist, caliper.covs, caliper.covs.mat, mahcovs,
antiexactcovs, unit.id, verbose)
}
}
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