##' A test for comparing the means of two bounded random variables given two
##' independent samples
##'
##' This test requires that the user knows upper and lower bounds before
##' gathering the data such that the properties of the data generating process
##' imply that all observations will be within these bounds. The data input
##' consists of a sequence of independent observations for each random
##' variable, the two sequences being generated independently. No further
##' distributional assumptions are made.
##'
##' This is a test of the null hypothesis: \eqn{H_0: E(X_1) \le E(X_2)} against
##' \eqn{H_1: E(X_1) > E(X_2)}.
##'
##' This test uses the known bounds of the variables to transform the data into
##' [0, 1]. Then a random transformation is used to turn the data into
##' binary-valued variables. On this variables the exact Fischer-Tocher Test
##' with level \code{pseudoalpha} is performed and the result recorded. The
##' random transformation and the test are then repeated \code{iterations}
##' times. If the average rejection probability \code{probrej} of the
##' iterations is at least \code{theta}, then the null hypothesis is rejected.
##' If however \code{probrej} is too close to the threshold \code{theta} then
##' the number of iterations is increased. The algorithm keeps increasing the
##' number of iterations until the bound on the mistake involved by running
##' these iterations is below \code{epsilon}. This error epsilon is
##' incorporated into the overall level \code{alpha} in order to maintain that
##' the test is exact.
##'
##' \code{theta} is found in an optimization procedure. \code{theta} is chosen
##' as to bring the type II error to 0.5. Please see the cited paper below for
##' further information.
##'
##' @param x1,x2 the (non-empty) numerical data vectors which contain the
##' variables to be tested.
##' @param lower,upper the theoretical lower and upper bounds on the data
##' outcomes known ex-ante before gathering the data.
##' @param iterations the number of iterations used, should not be changed if
##' the exact solution should be derived.
##' @param alpha the type I error.
##' @param alternative a character string describing the alternative
##' hypothesis, can take values "greater", "less" or "two.sided".
##' @param epsilon the tolerance in terms of probability of the Monte Carlo
##' simulations.
##' @param ignoreNA if \code{TRUE}, NA values will be omitted. Default:
##' \code{FALSE}
##' @param max.iterations the maximum number of iterations that should be
##' carried out. This number could be increased to achieve greater accuracy in
##' cases where the difference between the threshold probability and theta is
##' small. Default: \code{10000}
##' @return A list with class "nphtest" containing the following components:
##'
##' \item{method}{ a character string indicating the name and type of the test
##' that was performed. } \item{data.name}{ a character string giving the
##' name(s) of the data. } \item{alternative}{ a character string describing
##' the alternative hypothesis. } \item{estimate}{ the sample means of the two
##' variables. } \item{probrej}{ numerical estimate of the rejection
##' probability of the randomized test, derived by taking an average of
##' \code{iterations} realizations of the rejection probability. }
##' \item{bounds}{ the lower and upper bounds of the variables. }
##' \item{null.value}{ the specified hypothesized value of the correlation
##' between the variables. } \item{alpha}{ the type I error. } \item{theta}{
##' the parameter that minimizes the type II error. } \item{pseudoalpha}{
##' \code{theta}*\code{alpha}, this is the level used when calculating the
##' average rejection probability during the iterations } \item{rejection}{
##' logical indicator for whether or not the null hypothesis can be rejected }
##' \item{iterations}{ the number of iterations that were performed. }
##' @author Karl Schlag, Christian Pechhacker, Peter Saffert and Oliver Reiter
##' @seealso
##' \url{https://homepage.univie.ac.at/karl.schlag/statistics.php}
##' @references Karl Schlag (2008), A New Method for Constructing Exact Tests
##' without Making any Assumptions. Available at
##' \url{https://ideas.repec.org/p/upf/upfgen/1109.html}.
##' @keywords unpaired data mean test
##' @examples
##'
##' ## test whether countries with french origin score lower than
##' ## countries with no french origin
##' data(french)
##' npMeanUnpaired(french[[1]], french[[2]], alternative = "less", ignoreNA =
##' TRUE)
##'
##' ## test whether American tend to be more generous than Isrealis
##' ## in a round of the Ultimatum game
##' data(bargaining)
##' npMeanUnpaired(bargaining$US, bargaining$IS, lower = 0, upper = 10, ignoreNA = TRUE)
##'
##' @export npMeanUnpaired
npMeanUnpaired <- function(x1, x2,
lower = 0, upper = 1,
iterations = 5000,
alpha = 0.05,
alternative = "two.sided",
epsilon = 1 * 10^(-6),
ignoreNA = FALSE,
max.iterations = 100000) {
method <- "Nonparametric Mean Test for unpaired variables"
null.value <- 0
names(null.value) <- "E[x2] - E[x1]" ## "mean difference"
names.x1 <- deparse(substitute(x1))
names.x2 <- deparse(substitute(x2))
DNAME <- paste(names.x1, "and", names.x2)
null.hypothesis <- paste("E(", names.x1, ")",
ifelse(alternative == "less", " >= ",
ifelse(alternative == "greater", " <= ",
" = ")),
"E(", names.x2, ")", sep = "")
alt.hypothesis <- paste("E(", names.x1, ")",
ifelse(alternative == "less", " < ",
ifelse(alternative == "greater", " > ",
" != ")),
"E(", names.x2, ")", sep = "")
## if x1 (or x2) is a 1-column data.frame, convert it to a vector
if(is.data.frame(x1)) {
if(dim(x1)[2] == 1) {
x1 <- x1[, 1]
}
}
if(is.data.frame(x2)) {
if(dim(x2)[2] == 1) {
x2 <- x2[, 1]
}
}
x1 <- as.vector(x1)
x2 <- as.vector(x2)
if(ignoreNA == TRUE) {
x1 <- x1[!is.na(x1)]
x2 <- x2[!is.na(x2)]
} else if(any(is.na(c(x1, x2))) == TRUE) {
stop("The data contains NA's!")
}
if(min(x1, x2) < lower | max(x1, x2) > upper)
stop("Some values are out of bounds!")
if(alternative != "two.sided" & alternative != "greater" & alternative != "less")
stop("Please specify which alternative hypothesis you want to test for: 'greater', 'less' or 'two.sided'")
if(alpha >= 1 | alpha <= 0)
stop("Please supply a sensible value for alpha.")
sample.est <- c(mean(x1), mean(x2))
names(sample.est) <- c(paste("mean(", names.x1, ")", sep = ""),
paste("mean(", names.x2, ")", sep = ""))
## standardize variables
## d <- d/(upper - lower)
x1 <- (x1 - lower)/(upper - lower)
x2 <- (x2 - lower)/(upper - lower)
## x1 <- as.matrix(x1)
## x2 <- as.matrix(x2)
## define local variables
n1 <- length(x1)
n2 <- length(x2)
min.length <- min(n1, n2)
error <- 1
rejMatrix <- vector(mode = "numeric", length = 0)
if(alternative == "two.sided") {
##
## alternative "greater" at alpha / 2
##
resultsGreater <- doTwoVariablesTest(alpha = alpha / 2,
epsilon = epsilon,
iterations = iterations,
max.iterations = max.iterations,
testFunction = randomTest,
x1 = x1, x2 = x2,
n1 = n1, n2 = n2)
##
## alternative "less"
##
x1 <- 1 - x1
x2 <- 1 - x2
resultsLess <- doTwoVariablesTest(alpha = alpha / 2,
epsilon = epsilon,
theta = resultsGreater[["theta"]],
typeII = resultsGreater[["typeIIerror"]],
d.alternative = resultsGreater[["d.alternative"]],
iterations = iterations,
max.iterations = max.iterations,
testFunction = randomTest,
x1 = x1, x2 = x2,
n1 = n1, n2 = n2)
## "greater" rejects
if(resultsGreater[["rejection"]] == TRUE) {
results <- resultsGreater
theta <- resultsGreater[["theta"]]
}
## "less" rejects
else if(resultsLess[["rejection"]] == TRUE) {
results <- resultsLess
theta <- resultsLess[["theta"]]
}
## none rejects:
## we take the one that is more likely to reject
else {
if((sample.est[1] - sample.est[2] > 0) & !is.null(resultsGreater[["theta"]])) {
results <- resultsGreater
theta <- resultsGreater[["theta"]]
}
else if((sample.est[1] - sample.est[2] < 0) & !is.null(resultsLess[["theta"]])) {
results <- resultsLess
theta <- resultsLess[["theta"]]
} else {
results <- resultsGreater
theta <- resultsGreater[["theta"]]
}
}
results <- mergeTwoResultSets(results, resultsGreater, resultsLess)
## if rejection in a two.sided setting, we inform the user of the
## side of rejection
if(results[["rejection"]] == TRUE) {
alt.hypothesis <- paste("E(", names.x1, ")",
ifelse(resultsGreater[["rejection"]] == TRUE, " < ", " > "),
"E(", names.x2, ")", sep = "")
}
} else {
if(alternative == "greater") {
x1 <- 1 - x1
x2 <- 1 - x2
}
results <- doTwoVariablesTest(alpha = alpha,
epsilon = epsilon,
iterations = iterations,
max.iterations = max.iterations,
testFunction = randomTest,
x1 = x1, x2 = x2,
n1 = n1, n2 = n2)
theta <- results[["theta"]]
if(alternative == "less" & !is.null(results[["d.alternative"]])) {
results[["d.alternative"]] <- 1 - results[["d.alternative"]]
}
}
if(!is.null(iterations) & results[["iterations.taken"]] < 1000)
warning("Low number of iterations. Results may be inaccurate.")
if(results[["iterations.taken"]] >= max.iterations)
warning(paste("The maximum number of iterations (",
format(max.iterations, scientific = FALSE),
") was reached. Rejection may be very sensible to the choice of the parameters.", sep = ""))
bounds <- paste("[", lower, ", ", upper, "]", sep = "")
structure(list(method = method,
data.name = DNAME,
alternative = alternative,
null.hypothesis = null.hypothesis,
alt.hypothesis = alt.hypothesis,
estimate = sample.est,
probrej = results[["probrej"]],
rejection = results[["rejection"]],
mc.error = results[["mc.error"]],
alpha = alpha,
theta = theta,
thetaValue = results[["theta"]],
d.alternative = results[["d.alternative"]],
typeIIerror = results[["typeIIerror"]],
iterations = results[["iterations.taken"]],
pseudoalpha = results[["pseudoalpha"]],
bounds = bounds,
null.value = null.value),
class = "nphtest")
} ## end of npMeanUnpaired
randomTest <- function(x1, x2, pseudoalpha, dots) {
n1 <- dots[["n1"]]
n2 <- dots[["n2"]]
s1 <- sum(x1 >= runif(n1))
s2 <- sum(x2 >= runif(n2))
s3 <- s2 + s1
k <- max(0, s3 - n2):(s1 - 1)
prob <- 0
if (s1 >= (1 + k[1])) {
prob <- sum(choose(n1, k) * choose(n2, s3 - k)/choose(n1 + n2, s3))
## h.alt <- phyper(s1 - 1, n1, n2, A)
}
res <- 0
if (prob <= pseudoalpha) {
## h2 <- prob + choose(n1, s1) * choose(n2, s3 - s1)/choose(n1 +
## n2, s3)
h2 <- prob + dhyper(s1, n1, n2, s3)
if (h2 <= pseudoalpha) {
res <- 1
} else {
res <- ((pseudoalpha - prob)/(h2 - prob))
}
}
return(res)
}
########################################
## Theta function new
########################################
## calculates pvalue of Fisher's test
pvalueFisher <- function(n1, n2, s1, s2) {
## if( s1 == -1 | s2 > n2)
## return(0)
## else
## {
## phyper(s2 - 1, n2, n1, s1 + s2,
## lower.tail = FALSE)
## }
## try to vectorize it -> seems to work
ifelse(s1 == -1 | s2 > n2, 0, phyper(s2 - 1, n2, n1, s1 + s2,
lower.tail = FALSE))
}
## ## calculates typeII error for given y1, y2 (and of course n1,n2, alpha)
## maxTypeII <- function(y1, d, n1, n2, y2 = y1 + d,
## alpha = alpha, theta = 0.2)
## {
## pseudoalpha <- theta * alpha
## ## exmat <- matrix(nrow = n1 + 1, ncol = n2 + 1)
## res <- 0
## for(s1 in 0:n1)
## {
## ## for(s2 in 0:n2)
## ## {
## ## t1 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1, s2)
## ## t2 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1 - 1, s2 + 1)
## ## if( t2 >= pseudoalpha)
## ## {
## ## ## in this case, pr = zero
## ## ## so we can skip the calculation of the term
## ## exmat[s1 + 1, s2 + 1] <- 0
## ## }
## ## else
## ## {
## ## if( t1 > pseudoalpha & pseudoalpha > t2)
## ## {
## ## ## pr <- (pseudoalpha - t2) / ((choose(n1, s1) *
## ## ## choose(n2, s2))/ choose(n1 + n2, s1 + s2))
## ## pr <- (pseudoalpha - t2) / dhyper(s1, n1, n2, s1 + s2)
## ## }
## ## else
## ## {
## ## if(t1 <= pseudoalpha) pr <- 1
## ## }
## ## exmat[s1 + 1,
## ## s2 + 1] <- dbinom(s1, n1, y1) * dbinom(s2, n2, y2) * pr
## ## }
## ## }
## ## }
## ## now instead of the second for clause -> vectorized if-clauses!
## t1 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1, 0:n2)
## t2 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1 - 1, 1:(n2 + 1))
## res <- res + sum(ifelse(t2 >= pseudoalpha, 0,
## ifelse(t1 > pseudoalpha & pseudoalpha > t2,
## dbinom(s1, n1, y1) * dbinom(0:n2, n2, y2) * (pseudoalpha - t2) / dhyper(s1, n1, n2, s1 + 0:n2),
## dbinom(s1, n1, y1) * dbinom(0:n2, n2, y2) * 1)))
## }
## type2 <- (1 - res) / (1 - theta)
## ## type2 <- (1 - sum(exmat)) / (1 - theta)
## return(min(type2, 1))
## }
maxTypeII <- function(y1, d, n1, n2, y2 = y1 + d,
alpha = 0.05, theta = 0.2) {
pseudoalpha <- theta * alpha
res <- 0
f <- function(s1, n1, n2, y1, y2) {
t1 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1, 0:n2)
t2 <- pvalueFisher(n1, n2, s1 - 1, 1:(n2 + 1))
res <- sum(ifelse(t2 >= pseudoalpha, 0,
ifelse(t1 > pseudoalpha & pseudoalpha > t2,
dbinom(s1, n1, y1) * dbinom(0:n2, n2, y2) * (pseudoalpha - t2) / dhyper(s1, n1, n2, s1 + 0:n2),
dbinom(s1, n1, y1) * dbinom(0:n2, n2, y2) * 1)))
res
}
res <- sum(sapply(0:n1, f, n1, n2, y1, y2))
type2 <- (1 - res)/(1 - theta)
return(min(type2, 1))
}
## same as function typeII error, only order of inputs changed,
## so that function "optimize" can be used
minTypeII <- function(theta, y1, y2, n1, n2, alpha) {
maxTypeII(y1, d = y2 - y1, n1, n2, y2,
alpha = alpha, theta = theta)
}
### calculate theta
optimizeTheta <- function(n1, n2, diff, alpha = alpha) {
## STEP 1) maximize typeII error over y1, y2
## cat("\nmax ")
maxexpect <- optimize(maxTypeII, c(0, 1 - diff),
## tol = .Machine$double.eps^0.5,
d = diff, n1 = n1, n2 = n2,
alpha = alpha, maximum = T)
e1opt <- maxexpect$maximum
e2opt <- e1opt + diff
## cat(e1opt, " ")
## cat(e2opt, " ")
## STEP 2) minimize typeII error over theta
## cat("min ")
thetaval <- optimize(minTypeII, c(0,1),
## tol = .Machine$double.eps^0.5,
n1 = n1, n2 = n2,
y1 = e1opt, y2 = e2opt, alpha = alpha)
## if(thetaval$objective == 1)
## stop("TypeII error = 1. Increase difference d")
## cat(thetaval$minimum, " ", thetaval$objective)
return(list(typeII = thetaval$objective,
theta = thetaval$minimum))
}
npMeanUnpairedminTypeIIErrorWrapper <- function(d, n1, n2, alpha,
typeIIgoal = 0.5) {
(optimizeTheta(n1, n2, d, alpha)$typeII - typeIIgoal)^2
}
## optimaltypeII <- optimize(npMeanUnpairedminTypeIIErrorWrapper,
## c(0, 1), n1 = 25, n2 = 29, alpha = .05)
## theta <- optimizeTheta(n1, n2, optimaltypeII$minimum, alpha)
## optimaltypeII <- uniroot(npMeanUnpairedminTypeIIErrorWrapper,
## c(0, 29), n1 = 25, n2 = 29,
## alpha = alpha)
## theta <- optimizeTheta(n1, n2,
## optimaltypeII[[1]], alpha = alpha)
## thetause <- theta(N1, N2 , diff = d,
## alpha = alpha)$theta
## pseudoalpha <- alpha * thetause
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